Behringer, D. W., M. Ji, and A. Leetmaa, 1998: An improved coupled model for ENSO prediction and implications for ocean initialization. Part I: The ocean data assimilation system. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 1013−1021, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1998)126<1013:AICMFE>2.0.CO;2.
Boucharel, J., A. Timmermann, A. Santoso, M. H. England, F. F. Jin, and M. A. Balmaseda, 2015: A surface layer variance heat budget for ENSO. Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 3529−3537, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL063843.
Chen, H.-C., and F.-F. Jin, 2020: Fundamental behavior of ENSO phase locking. J. Climate, 33, 1953−1968, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0264.1.
Chen, H.-C., and F.-F. Jin, 2021: Simulations of ENSO Phase-locking in CMIP5 and CMIP6. J. Climate, 34, 5135−5149, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0874.1.
Chen, H. C., and F. F. Jin, 2022: Dynamics of ENSO phase–locking and its biases in climate models. Geophys. Res. Lett., 49, e2021GL097603. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL097603.
Chen, L., T. M. Li, S. K. Behera, and T. Doi, 2016a: Distinctive precursory air–sea signals between regular and super El Niños. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 33 , 996−1004, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-016-5250-8.
Chen, L., Y. Q. Yu, and W. P. Zheng, 2016b: Improved ENSO simulation from climate system model FGOALS-g1.0 to FGOALS-g2. Climate Dyn., 47, 2617−2634, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-016-2988-8.
Chen, L., T. M. Li, Y. Q. Yu, and S. K. Behera, 2017: A possible explanation for the divergent projection of ENSO amplitude change under global warming. Climate Dyn., 49, 3799−3811, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-017-3544-x.
Fang, X. H., and R. H. Xie, 2020: A brief review of ENSO theories and prediction. Science China Earth Sciences, 63, 476−491, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-019-9539-0.
Fang, X.-H., and F. Zheng, 2021: Effect of the air–sea coupled system change on the ENSO evolution from boreal spring. Climate Dyn., 57, 109−120, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-021-05697-w.
Huang, B. Y., Y. Xue, D. X. Zhang, A. Kumar, and M. J. McPhaden, 2010: The NCEP GODAS ocean analysis of the tropical Pacific mixed layer heat budget on seasonal to interannual time scales. J. Climate, 23, 4901−4925, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3373.1.
Huang, B. Y., Y. Xue, H. Wang, W. Q. Wang, and A. Kumar, 2012: Mixed layer heat budget of the El Niño in NCEP climate forecast system. Climate Dyn., 39, 365−381, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-011-1111-4.
Jin, F.-F., 1997: An equatorial ocean recharge paradigm for ENSO. Part I: Conceptual model. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 811−829, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1997)054<0 811:AEORPF>2.0.CO;2.
Jin, F.-F., S. T. Kim, and L. Bejarano, 2006: A coupled-stability index for ENSO. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L23708. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL027221.
Kanamitsu, M., W. Ebisuzaki, J. Woollen, S.-K. Yang, J. J. Hnilo, M. Fiorino, and G. L. Potter, 2002: NCEP–DOE AMIP-II Reanalysis (R-2). Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 83, 1631−1644, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-83-11-1631.
Kara, A. B., P. A. Rochford, and H. E. Hurlburt, 2000: An optimal definition for ocean mixed layer depth. J. Geophys. Res.: Oceans, 105 , 16 803−16 821, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JC900072.
Kim, S.-B., T. Lee, and I. Fukumori, 2007: Mechanisms controlling the interannual variation of mixed layer temperature averaged over the Niño-3 region. J. Climate, 20, 3822−3843, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI4206.1.
Kim, S.-K., and S.-I. An, 2021: Seasonal gap theory for ENSO phase locking. J. Climate, 34, 5621−5634, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0495.1.
Levine, A. F. Z., and M. J. McPhaden, 2015: The annual cycle in ENSO growth rate as a cause of the spring predictability barrier. Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 5034−5041, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL064309.
Li, T. M., 1997: Phase transition of the El Niño–Southern oscillation: A stationary SST mode. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 2872−2887, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1997)054<2872:PT OTEN>2.0.CO;2.
Liu, M. H., H.-L. Ren, R. H. Zhang, S. Ineson, and R. Wang, 2021: ENSO phase-locking behavior in climate models: From CMIP5 to CMIP6. Environmental Research Communications, 3, 031004. https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/abf2 95.
Liu, Q. Y., S.-P. Xie, L. J. Li, and N. A. Maximenko, 2005: Ocean thermal advective effect on the annual range of sea surface temperature. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L24604. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024493.
McGregor, S., A. Timmermann, N. Schneider, M. F. Stuecker, and M. H. England, 2012: The effect of the South Pacific convergence zone on the termination of El Niño events and the meridional asymmetry of ENSO. J. Climate, 25, 5566−5586, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00332.1.
McPhaden, M. J., S. E. Zebiak, and M. H. Glantz, 2006: ENSO as an integrating concept in earth science. Science, 314, 1740−1745, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132588.
Neelin, J. D., F.-F. Jin, and H.-H. Syu, 2000: Variations in ENSO Phase locking. J. Climate, 13, 2570−2590, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2000)013<2570:VIEPL>2.0.CO;2.
Philander, S. G. H., 1983: El Niño Southern Oscillation phenomena. Nature, 302, 295−301, https://doi.org/10.1038/30229 5a0.
Ren, H. L., and R. Wang, 2020: Distinct growth rates of the two ENSO types. Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2020GL088179. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL088179.
Stein, K., N. Schneider, A. Timmermann, and F.-F. Jin, 2010: Seasonal synchronization of ENSO events in a linear stochastic model. J. Climate, 23, 5629−5643, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3292.1.
Stein, K., A. Timmermann, N. Schneider, F.-F. Jin, and M. F. Stuecker, 2014: ENSO seasonal synchronization theory. J. Climate, 27, 5285−5310, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00525.1.
Thomson, R. E., and I. V. Fine, 2003: Estimating mixed layer depth from oceanic profile data. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 20, 319−329, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2003)020<0319:EMLDFO>2.0.CO;2.
Timmermann, A., and Coauthors, 2018: El Niño–Southern Oscillation complexity. Nature, 559, 535−545, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0252-6.
Tziperman, E., S. E. Zebiak, and M. A. Cane, 1997: Mechanisms of seasonal – ENSO interaction. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 61−71, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1997)054<0061:MOSE I>2.0.CO;2.
Voigt, A., and Coauthors, 2016: The tropical rain belts with an annual cycle and a continent model intercomparison project: TRACMIP. Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 8, 1868−1891, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016MS00 0748.
Wang, C. Z., S.-P. Xie, and J. A. Carton, 2004: A global survey of ocean-atmosphere interaction and climate variability. Earth's Climate: The Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction, C. Wang, S. P. Xie, and J. A. Carton, Eds., American Geophysical Union, 1−19, https://doi.org/10.1029/147GM01.
Wang, W. M., and M. J. McPhaden, 1999: The surface-layer heat balance in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Part I: Mean seasonal cycle. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 29, 1812−1831, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1999)029<1812:TSLHBI>2.0.CO;2.
Wang, W. M., and M. J. McPhaden, 2000: The surface-layer heat balance in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Part II: Interannual variability. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 30, 2989−3008, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(2001)031<2989:TSLHBI>2.0.CO;2.
Wang, W. M., and M. J. McPhaden, 2001: Surface layer temperature balance in the equatorial Pacific during the 1997−98 El Niño and 1998−99 La Niña. J. Climate, 14 , 3393−3407, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<3393:SLTBIT>2.0.CO;2.
Xie, P. P., and P. A. Arkin, 1997: Global precipitation: A 17-year monthly analysis based on gauge observations, satellite estimates, and numerical model outputs. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 78, 2539−2558, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<2539:GPAYMA>2.0.CO;2.
Xie, S.-P., and S. G. H. Philander, 1994: A coupled ocean-atmosphere model of relevance to the ITCZ in the eastern Pacific. Tellus A, 46, 340−350, https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0870.1994.t01-1-00001.x.
Xie, S.-P., Q. H. Peng, Y. Kamae, X.-T. Zheng, H. Tokinaga, and D. X. Wang, 2018: Eastern Pacific ITCZ dipole and ENSO diversity. J. Climate, 31, 4449−4462, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0905.1.