Abulikemu, A., Y. Wang, R. X. Gao, Y. Wang, and X. Xu, 2019: A numerical study of convection initiation associated with a gust front in Bohai Bay region, North China. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 124, 13 843−13 860, |
Bell, T. L., D. Rosenfeld, and K.-M. Kim, 2009: Weekly cycle of lightning: Evidence of storm invigoration by pollution. Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L23805, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL040915. |
Bornstein, R. D., and Q. L. Lin, 2000: Urban heat islands and summertime convective thunderstorms in Atlanta: Three case studies. Atmos. Environ., 34, 507−516, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00374-X. |
Bougeault, P., and P. Lacarrere, 1989: Parameterization of orography-induced turbulence in a mesobeta-scale model. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117, 1872−1890, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1989)117<1872:POOITI>2.0.CO;2. |
Changnon, S. A. Jr., 1969: Recent studies of urban effects on precipitation in the United States. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 50, 411−421, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477-50.6.411. |
Changnon, S. A. Jr., R. G. Semonin, A. H. Auer, R. R. Braham Jr., and J. M. Hales, 1981: METROMEX: A Review and Summary. Meteor. Monogr., No. 40, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 81 pp. |
Chen, F., and J. Dudhia, 2001: Coupling an advanced land surface–hydrology model with the Penn State–NCAR MM5 modeling system. Part I: Model implementation and sensitivity. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 569−585, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<0569:CAALSH>2.0.CO;2. |
Craig, K., and R. Bornstein, 2002: MM5 simulations of urban induced convective precipitation over Atlanta. Preprints, Fourth Symposium on the Urban Environment, Norfolk, VA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 1.3. [Available online from https://ams.confex.com/ams/AFMAPUE/techprogram/paper_38803.html] |
Davis, C. A., and T. J. Galarneau Jr., 2009: The vertical structure of mesoscale convective vortices. J. Atmos Sci., 66, 686−704, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JAS2819.1. |
Doan, Q.-V., A. Dipankar, A. Simón-Moral, C. Sanchez, V. Prasanna, M. Roth, and X.-Y. Huang, 2021: Urban-induced modifications to the diurnal cycle of rainfall over a tropical city. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 147, 1189−1201, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3966. |
Dudhia, J., 1989: Numerical study of convection observed during the winter monsoon experiment using a mesoscale two‐dimensional model. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 3077−3107, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1989)046<3077:NSOCOD>2.0.CO;2. |
ECMWF, 2017: ERA5 reanalysis. Research data archive at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Computational and Information System Laboratory, |
Ek, M. B., K. E. Mitchell, Y. Lin, E. Rogers, P. Grunmann, V. Koren, G. Gayno, and J. D. Tarpley, 2003: Implementation of Noah land surface model advances in the National Centers for Environmental Prediction operational mesoscale Eta Model. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 108, 8851, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD003296. |
Fu, X. S., X.-Q. Yang, and X. G. Sun, 2019: Spatial and diurnal variations of summer hourly rainfall over three super city clusters in eastern China and their possible link to the urbanization. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 124, 5445−5462, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JD030474. |
Guo, X. L., D. H. Fu, and J. Wang, 2006: Mesoscale convective precipitation system modified by urbanization in Beijing city. Atmospheric Research, 82, 112−126, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2005.12.007. |
Hjelmfelt, M. R., 1982: Numerical simulation of the effects of St. Louis on mesoscale boundary-layer airflow and vertical air motion: Simulations of urban vs non-urban effects. J. Appl. Meteorol., 21, 1239−1257, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1982)021<1239:NSOTEO>2.0.CO;2. |
Huff, F. A., and J. L. Vogel, 1978: Urban, topographic and diurnal effects on rainfall in the St. Louis region. J. Appl. Meteorol., 17, 565−577, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1978)017<0565:UTADEO>2.0.CO;2. |
Janjić, Z. I., 1990: The step-mountain coordinate: Physical package. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118(7), 1429−1443, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1990)118<1429:TSMCPP>2.0.CO;2. |
Janjić, Z. I., 2002: Nonsingular implementation of the Mellor–Yamada level 2.5 scheme in the NCEP Meso model. NCEP Office Note 437, 61 pp. |
Jiang, X. L., Y. L. Luo, D.-L. Zhang, and M. W. Wu, 2020: Urbanization enhanced summertime extreme hourly precipitation over the Yangtze River Delta. J. Climate, 33, 5809−5826, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0884.1. |
Jin, M. L., and J. M. Shepherd, 2008: Aerosol relationships to warm season clouds and rainfall at monthly scales over East China: Urban land versus ocean. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 113, D24S90, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010276. |
Kain, J. S., 2004: The Kain-Fritsch convective parameterization: An update. J. Appl. Meteorol., 43(1), 170−181, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2004)043<0170:TKCPAU>2.0.CO;2. |
Kishtawal, C. M., D. Niyogi, M. Tewari, R. A. Pielke, and J. M. Shepherd, 2010: Urbanization signature in the observed heavy rainfall climatology over India. International Journal of Climatology, 30, 1908−1916, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2044. |
Li, H. Q., X. P. Cui, and D.-L. Zhang, 2017: Sensitivity of the initiation of an isolated thunderstorm over the Beijing metropolitan region to urbanization, terrain morphology and cold outflows. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 143, 3153−3164, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3169. |
Li, Y., and Coauthors, 2020: Strong intensification of hourly rainfall extremes by urbanization. Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2020GL088758, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL088758. |
Liang, P., and Y. H. Ding, 2017: The long-term variation of extreme heavy precipitation and its link to urbanization effects in Shanghai during 1916−2014. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 34, 321−334, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-016-6120-0. |
Lim, K.-S. S., and S.-Y. Hong, 2010: Development of an effective double-moment cloud microphysics scheme with prognostic cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) for weather and climate models. Mon. Wea. Rev., 138, 1587−1612, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009MWR2968.1. |
Martilli, A., 2002: Numerical study of urban impact on boundary layer structure: Sensitivity to wind speed, urban morphology, and rural soil moisture. J. Appl. Meteorol., 41, 1247−1266, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2002)041<1247:NSOUIO>2.0.CO;2. |
Matheson, M. A., and Y. Ashie, 2008: The effect of changes of urban surfaces on rainfall phenomenon as determined by a non-hydrostatic mesoscale model. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 86, 733−751, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.86.733. |
Miao, S. G., F. Chen, Q. C. Li, and S. Y. Fan, 2011: Impacts of urban processes and urbanization on summer precipitation: A case study of heavy rainfall in Beijing on 1 August 2006. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 50, 806−825, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAMC2513.1. |
Mlawer, E. J., S. J. Taubman, P. D. Brown, M. J. Iacono, and S. A. Clough, 1997: Radiative transfer for inhomogeneous atmosphere: RRTM, a validated correlated‐k model for the longwave. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 102(D14), 16,663−16,682, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JD00237. |
Morrison, H., and J. A. Milbrandt, 2015: Parameterization of cloud microphysics based on the prediction of bulk ice particle properties. Part I: Scheme description and idealized tests. J. Atmos. Sci., 72, 287−311, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0065.1. |
Morrison, H., G. Thompson, and V. Tatarskii, 2009: Impact of cloud microphysics on the development of trailing stratiform precipitation in a simulated squall line: Comparison of one- and two-moment schemes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 137(3), 991−1007, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008MWR2556.1. |
Niyogi, D., P. Pyle, M. Lei, S. P. Arya, C. M. Kishtawal, M. Shepherd, F. Chen, and B. Wolfe, 2011: Urban modification of thunderstorms: An observational storm climatology and model case study for the Indianapolis urban region. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 50, 1129−1144, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAMC1836.1. |
Ntelekos, A. A., J. A. Smith, L. Donner, J. D. Fast, W. I. Gustafson Jr., E. G. Chapman, and W. F. Krajewski, 2009: The effects of aerosols on intense convective precipitation in the northeastern United States. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 135, 1367−1391, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.476. |
Rosenfeld, D., 2000: Suppression of rain and snow by urban and industrial air pollution. Science, 287, 1793−1796, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5459.1793. |
Skamarock, W. C., and Coauthors, 2008: A description of the Advanced Research WRF version 3. NCAR Tech. Note NCAR/TN-4751STR, 113 pp. |
Sun, X. Y., Y. L. Luo, X. Y. Gao, M. W. Wu, M. X. Li, L. Huang, D. L. Zhang, and H. M. Xu, 2021: On the localized extreme rainfall over the Great Bay area in South China with complex topography and strong UHI effects. Mon. Wea. Rev., 149, 2777−2801, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-21-0004.1. |
Taylor, K. E., 2001: Summarizing multiple aspects of model performance in a single diagram. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 106, 7183−7192, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JD900719. |
Thompson, G., and T. Eidhammer, 2014: A study of aerosol impacts on clouds and precipitation development in a large winter cyclone. J. Atmos. Sci., 71(10), 3636−3658, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-13-0305.1. |
Thompson, G., P. R. Field, R. M. Rasmussen, and W. D. Hall, 2008: Explicit forecasts of winter precipitation using an improved bulk microphysics scheme. Part II: Implementation of a new snow parameterization. Mon. Wea. Rev., 136, 5095−5115, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008MWR2387.1. |
Wai, K. M., and Coauthors, 2017: Observational evidence of a long-term increase in precipitation due to urbanization effects and its implications for sustainable urban living. Science of The Total Environment, 599−600, 647−654, |
Wang, X. M., F. Chen, Z. Y. Wu, M. G. Zhang, M. Tewari, A. Guenther, and C. Wiedinmyer, 2009: Impacts of weather conditions modified by urban expansion on surface ozone: Comparison between the Pearl River Delta and Yangtze River Delta regions. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 26, 962−972, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-009-8001-2. |
Wei, P., and Coauthors, 2022: On key dynamical processes supporting the 21.7 Zhengzhou record-breaking hourly rainfall in China. Adv. Atmos. Sci., https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-022-2061-y. |
Wu, M. W., Y. L. Luo, F. Chen, and W. K. Wong, 2019: Observed link of extreme hourly precipitation changes to urbanization over coastal South China. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 58, 1799−1819, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-18-0284.1. |
Xiao, C., P. L. Wu, L. X. Zhang, and L. C. Song, 2016: Robust increase in extreme summer rainfall intensity during the past four decades observed in China. Scientific Reports, 6, 38506, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep38506. |
Xu, X., M. Xue, Y. Wang, 2015: Mesovortices within the 8 May 2009 Bow Echo over the Central United States: Analyses of the characteristics and evolution based on Doppler radar observations and a high-resolution model simulation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 143, 2266−2290, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-14-00234.1. |
Yang, L., J. Smith, and D. Niyogi, 2019: Urban impacts on extreme monsoon rainfall and flooding in complex terrain. Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 5918−5927, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL083363. |
Yang, L., J. A. Smith, M. L. Baeck, E. Bou-Zeid, S. M. Jessup, F. Q. Tian, and H. P. Hu, 2014: Impact of urbanization on heavy convective precipitation under strong large-scale forcing: A case study over the Milwaukee-Lake Michigan region. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 15, 261−278, https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-13-020.1. |
Yin, J. F., D.-L. Zhang, Y. L. Luo, and R. Y. Ma, 2020: On the extreme rainfall event of 7 May 2017 over the coastal city of Guangzhou. Part I: impacts of urbanization and orography. Mon. Wea. Rev., 148, 955−979, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-19-0212.1. |
Yin, J. F., H. D. Gu, X. D. Liang, M. Yu, J. S. Sun, Y. X. Xie, F. Li, and C. Wu, 2022: A possible dynamic mechanism for rapid production of the extreme hourly rainfall in Zhengzhou city on 20 July 2021. J. Meteor. Res., 36, 6−25, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13351-022-1166-7. |
Zhang, C. L., F. Chen, S. G. Miao, Q. C. Li, X. A. Xia, and C. Y. Xuan, 2009a: Impacts of urban expansion and future green planting on summer precipitation in the Beijing metropolitan area. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 114, D02116, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010328. |
Zhang, D.-L., 2020: Rapid urbanization and more extreme rainfall events. Science Bulletin, 65, 516−518, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scib.2020.02.002. |
Zhang, Q., C.-Y. Xu, S. Becker, Z. X. Zhang, Y. D. Chen, and M. Coulibaly, 2009b: Trends and abrupt changes of precipitation maxima in the Pearl River basin, China. Atmospheric Science Letters, 10, 132−144, https://doi.org/10.1002/asl.221. |
Zhong, S., and X.-Q. Yang, 2015: Ensemble simulations of the urban effect on a summer rainfall event in the great Beijing metropolitan area. Atmospheric Research, 153, 318−334, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2014.09.005. |
Zhong, S., Y. Qian, C. Zhao, R. Leung, and X. Q. Yang, 2015: A case study of urbanization impact on summer precipitation in the greater Beijing metropolitan area: Urban heat island versus aerosol effects. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 120, 10 903−10 914, |