SST Forcing off California Coast and Its Relationship to the Decadal Variation of North Pacific
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摘要: 本文利用1958～2018年期间海表面温度（SST）异常和湍流热通量异常变化的关系，探讨了其与北太平洋年代际振荡（PDO）相关的年际和年代际时间尺度上在不同海域的海气相互作用特征。结果表明：在年际尺度上，黑潮—亲潮延伸区（KOE）表现为显著大气强迫海洋，赤道中东太平洋表现为显著海洋强迫大气；在年代际尺度上，PDO北中心表现为大气强迫海洋，加利福尼亚附近则表现为显著海洋强迫大气。进一步分析表明：加利福尼亚附近区域是北太平洋准12年振荡的关键区域之一，与PDO准十年的周期类似，加利福尼亚附近的冷（暖）海温对应其上有反气旋（气旋）型环流，赤道中太平洋海水上翻和北太平洋东部副热带区域经向风应力的变化是北太平洋准12年振荡的另外两个重要环节。Abstract: This study explores the characteristics of interannual and interdecadal air–sea interactions related to the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) over the different regions of the North Pacific based on the relationship between turbulent heat flux and sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies during 1958–2018. The results show that the atmosphere directly drives SST anomalies over the Kuroshio–Oyashio Extension and the SST anomalies force atmospheric circulation over the equatorial central and eastern Pacific on the interannual scale. On the interdecadal scale, SST anomalies are mainly driven via atmospheric circulation over the north center of PDO. However, the ocean is very important in forming SST anomalies off the California coast. Further analysis shows that the area off the California coast is one of the key areas of quasi-12-year oscillation in the North Pacific. The period is similar to the decadal oscillation of PDO. The anticyclone (cyclone) circulation off the California coast may be forced via the cold (warm) SST anomalies off the California coast. The other two important parts in the quasi-12-year oscillation in the North Pacific are the upwelling of the equatorial central Pacific and meridional wind stress anomalies in the subtropical eastern North Pacific.
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图 1 1958～2018年（a）标准化PDO指数逐月时间序列（柱状）以及经过96个月Lanczos高通/低通滤波后的PDO指数的逐月时间序列，（b）PDO逐月时间序列的功率谱分析，红色虚线、黑色点线、黑色点虚线分别表示通过红噪音检验、90%、95%的置信水平检验，黑点及数字表示周期在10年以上的显著周期
Figure 1. (a) Monthly standardized PDO (Pacific Decadal Oscillation) index (bars) and PDO index with the 96-month Lanczos high-pass/low-pass filtering, (b) power spectrum of the monthly PDO index from 1958 to 2018. In Fig. b, the red dashed, black-dotted, and dot-dashed lines are the red noise test line, statistically at 90%, and 95% confidence levels, respectively. The black dot and number indicate the significant period over a decade
图 2 1985～2018年（a）潜热通量湍流交换系数（Ce）、（b）感热通量湍流交换系数（Ch）估计值分布（×10−3）
Figure 2. Estimate of turbulent exchange coefficients (×10−3) of (a) latent heat flux (Ce), (b) sensible heat flux (Ch) during 1985–2018
图 3 1958～2018年（a）SSTA（单位：°C）和（c、e、g）湍流热通量异常（HF，单位：W m−2）对年际PDO指数的回归分布，打点区域表示通过95%的置信水平检验，SST来自于HadISST数据集，图c、e、g的湍流热通量分别来自于1958～2018年OAFlux数据集、1958～2018年NCEP数据集和1958～2013年JRA-55数据集。（b、d、f、h）同（a、c、e、g），但为对年代际PDO指数的回归分布，打点区域表示通过90%的置信水平
Figure 3. Distribution of the regressed (a) SSTA (units: °C) and (c, e, g) turbulent heat flux anomalies (HF; units: W m−2) upon the interannual PDO index from 1958 to 2018, the areas with dots are statistically above the 95% confidence level. SST is from HadISST data, and turbulent heat fluxes in Figs. c, e, g from OAFlux data during 1958–2018, NCEP data during 1958–2018, JRA-55 data during 1958–2013, respectively. (b, d, f, h) As in (a, c, e, g), but upon the decadal PDO index, the areas with dots are statistically above the 90% confidence level
图 4 1958～2018年年际PDO指数与湍流热通量异常各分量（单位：W m−2）的线性回归分布（彩色阴影）：（a）风速异常引起的湍流热通量异常分量
$ \left\{ {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}}' \left[ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop L\nolimits_{\text{e}} \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{e}} \left( {\overline {\mathop q\nolimits_{\text{s}} } - \overline {\mathop q\nolimits_{\text{a}} } } \right) + \mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop c\nolimits_p \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{h}} \left( {\overline {\mathop t\nolimits_{\text{s}} } - \overline {\mathop t\nolimits_{\text{a}} } } \right)} \right]} \right\} $ ，图中矢量箭头表示10 m纬向风（ua）和经向风（va）的气候场（单位：m s−1）；（b）海气温差和比湿差异常共同引起的湍流热通量异常分量$ \left\{ {\left[ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop L\nolimits_{\text{e}} \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{e}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \left( {\mathop q\nolimits_{\text{s}}' - \mathop q\nolimits_{\text{a}}' } \right) + \mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop c\nolimits_p \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{h}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \left( {\mathop t\nolimits_{\text{s}}' - \mathop t\nolimits_{\text{a}}' } \right)} \right]} \right\} $ ；（c）海气比湿差异常引起的湍流热通量异常分量$ \left\{ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop L\nolimits_{\text{e}} \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{e}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \left( {\mathop q\nolimits_{\text{s}}' - \mathop q\nolimits_{\text{a}}' } \right)} \right\} $ ；（d）海气温差异常引起的湍流热通量异常分量$ \left\{ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop c\nolimits_p \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{h}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \left( {\mathop t\nolimits_{\text{s}}' - \mathop t\nolimits_{\text{a}}' } \right)} \right\} $ ；（e）SSTA引起的湍流热通量异常分量$ \left\{ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop L\nolimits_{\text{e}} \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{e}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \mathop q\nolimits_{\text{s}}' + \mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop c\nolimits_p \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{h}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \mathop t\nolimits_{\text{s}}' } \right\} $ ；（f）大气比湿和气温异常共同引起的湍流热通量异常分量$ \left\{ { - \left[ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop L\nolimits_{\text{e}} \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{e}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \mathop q\nolimits_{\text{a}}' + \mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop c\nolimits_p \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{h}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \mathop t\nolimits_{\text{a}}' } \right]} \right\} $ 。打点区域表示通过95%的置信水平检验。ua和va来自于NCEP数据集，10 m全风速（Ua）、海表面温度（ts）、大气2 m比湿（qa）和气温（ta）均来自于OAFlux数据集，海表饱和比湿qs由ts计算得到Figure 4. Distribution of the regressed turbulent HF anomaly components of caused by (a) abnormal wind speed
$ \left\{ {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}}' \left[ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop L\nolimits_{\text{e}} \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{e}} \left( {\overline {\mathop q\nolimits_{\text{s}} } - \overline {\mathop q\nolimits_{\text{a}} } } \right) + \mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop c\nolimits_p \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{h}} \left( {\overline {\mathop t\nolimits_{\text{s}} } - \overline {\mathop t\nolimits_{\text{a}} } } \right)} \right]} \right\} $ , and the red vectors represent the climatology (units: m s−1) of 10 m zonal speed (ua) and meridional speed (va), (b) abnormal differences in air–sea temperature and specific humidity$ \left\{ {\left[ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop L\nolimits_{\text{e}} \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{e}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \left( {\mathop q\nolimits_{\text{s}}' - \mathop q\nolimits_{\text{a}}' } \right) + \mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop c\nolimits_p \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{h}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \left( {\mathop t\nolimits_{\text{s}}' - \mathop t\nolimits_{\text{a}}' } \right)} \right]} \right\} $ , (c) abnormal differences in air–sea specific humidity$ \left\{ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop L\nolimits_{\text{e}} \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{e}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \left( {\mathop q\nolimits_{\text{s}}' - \mathop q\nolimits_{\text{a}}' } \right)} \right\} $ , (d) abnormal differences in air–sea temperature$ \left\{ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop c\nolimits_p \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{h}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \left( {\mathop t\nolimits_{\text{s}}' - \mathop t\nolimits_{\text{a}}' } \right)} \right\} $ , (e) SSTA$\left\{ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop L\nolimits_{\text{e}} \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{e}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \mathop q\nolimits_{\text{s}}' + \mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop c\nolimits_p \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{h}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \mathop t\nolimits_{\text{s}}' } \right\}$ , and (f) abnormal specific humidity and temperature$ \left\{ { - \left[ {\mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop L\nolimits_{\text{e}} \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{e}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \mathop q\nolimits_{\text{a}}' + \mathop \rho \nolimits_{\text{a}} \mathop c\nolimits_p \mathop C\nolimits_{\text{h}} \overline {\mathop U\nolimits_{\text{a}} } \mathop t\nolimits_{\text{a}}' } \right]} \right\} $ (units: W m−2) upon the interannual PDO index from 1958 to 2018. The areas with dots are statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. ua and va are from NCEP. 10 m wind speed (Ua), SST (ts), 2 m specific humidity (qa) and temperature (ta) obtained from OAFlux. Sea surface saturation specific humidity (qs) is calculated by ts
图 5 同图4，但为年代际PDO指数的回归分布，打点区域表示通过90%的置信水平检验
Figure 5. As in Fig. 4, but for decadal PDO index, the areas with dots are statistically above the 90% confidence level
图 6 1958～2018年年代际尺度冬季（a）SSTA（单位：°C）和（b）湍流热通量异常（单位：W m−2）对PDO指数的回归分布。（c、d）同（a、b），但为夏季的结果。打点区域表示通过90%的置信水平检验。SST来自于HadISST数据集，湍流热通量来自于OAFlux数据集
Figure 6. Distributions of the regressed (a) SSTA (units: °C), (b) turbulent heat flux anomalies (units: W m−2) upon the decadal PDO index in winter (DJF-mean) from 1958 to 2018. (c, d) As in (a, b), but for results in summer (JJA-mean). The areas with dots are statistically above the 90% confidence level. SST is from HadISST data, and turbulent heat fluxes are from OAFlux data
图 7 1958～2018年（a）加利福尼亚附近（20°～40°N，140°～110°W）SSTA区域平均（CaI）的标准化逐月时间序列，（b）CaI的功率谱，红色虚线、黑色点线、黑色点虚线分别表示通过红噪音检验、90%、95%的置信水平，黑点及数字表示周期在10年以上的显著周期。SST来自于HadISST数据集
Figure 7. (a) Standardized monthly time series of SSTA averaged over the area off the California coast (CaI, 20°–40°N, 140°–110°W), (b) power spectrum of CaI during 1958–2018. In Fig. b, the red dashed, black-dotted, and dot-dashed lines are the red noise test line, statistically above the 90% confidence level, and 95% confidence level, respectively. The black dot and number indicate the significant period over a decade. SST is from HadISST data
图 8 1958～2018年96～240个月带通滤波的CaI与（a1–a9）5°S～5°N平均次表层海温异常（单位：°C）、（b1–b9）30°～40°N平均次表层海温异常（单位：°C）、（c1–c9）SSTA（单位：°C）、（d1–d9）风应力异常（单位：N m−2）的超前—滞后回归分布。图b1–b9中，箭头表示洋流纬向流速uo（单位：cm s−1）和垂直流速wo（单位：10−5 cm s−1）的气候场；图d1–d9中，黄色阴影区域表示通过90%的置信水平检验。图a1–a9、b1–b9、c1–c9中打点区域表示通过90%的置信水平检验。Lag表示CaI滞后，Lead表示CaI超前。SST来自于HadISST数据集，次表层海温来自于EN4.2.1数据集，风应力来自于NCEP数据集，uo和wo来自于GECCO3数据集
Figure 8. Lead–lag regression between the 96–240-month band-pass CaI and (a1–a9) subsurface ocean temperature anomalies (units: °C) averaged over 5°S–5°N, (b1–b9) subsurface ocean temperature anomalies (units: °C) averaged over 30°–40°N, (c1–c9) SSTA (units: °C), (d1–d9) wind stress anomalies (units: N m−2) during 1958–2018. In Figs. b1–b9, arrows represent the climatological ocean circulation of the zonal speed uo (units: cm s−1) and vertical speed wo (units: 10−5 cm s−1); in Figs. d1–d9, the yellow shadings indicate statistically above the 90% confidence level; in Figs. a1–a9, b1–b9, c1–c9, the dots areas indicate statistically above the 90% confidence level. Lag indicates CaI lagging, and Lead indicates CaI leading. SST, sub-surface ocean temperature, wind stress, and uo, wo obtained from HadISST data, EN4.2.1 data, NCEP data, and GECCO3 data, respectively
图 9 1958～2018年（a）赤道中太平洋（5°S～5°N，180°～120°W）区域平均逐月SSTA、（b）北太平洋东部副热带地区（20°～40°N，140°～110°W）区域平均逐月经向风应力的功率谱，红色虚线、黑色点线、黑色点虚线分别表示通过红噪音检验以及通过90%、95%的置信水平检验，黑点及数字表示周期在10年以上的显著周期。SST来自于HadISST数据集，经向风应力来自于NCEP数据集
Figure 9. Power spectrum of (a) monthly SSTA averaged over the equatorial central Pacific (5°S–5°N, 180°–120°W) and (b) monthly meridional wind stress averaged over the subtropical eastern North Pacific (20°–40°N, 140°–110°W) during 1958–2018. The red dashed, black-dotted, and dot-dashed lines indicate the red noise test line, statistically above the 90% confidence level, and 95% confidence level, respectively. The black dot and number indicate the significant period of over a decade
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