Spatial Characteristics of Surface Air Temperature–Land Surface Coupling Strength during Summer in China
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摘要: 鉴于陆气相互作用对极端高温事件的重要作用，利用ERA5-Land陆面再分析资料，分析了基于敏感度的中国区域夏季地表气温与土壤湿度、土壤温度耦合强度的多时间尺度分布特征。研究结果表明，基于不同耦合过程指标定义的陆气耦合强度在中国区域呈不同的空间分布特征，其中基于潜热通量的陆面变量—地表气温耦合的“热点”区域主要分布在中国的西北地区和长江流域，基于感热通量的陆面变量—地表气温耦合的“热点”区域则主要分布在河套—内蒙古地区、新疆西南部地区，以及长江以南部分区域。这说明夏季地表气温对陆面变量异常的敏感度的区域差异，与不同区域陆面异常影响地表气温的主导过程密切相关。此外，陆气耦合强度的强弱还随时间尺度而变化，其中月—季节尺度的陆气耦合强度要明显弱于日、候及旬尺度的耦合强度；就日、候及旬时间尺度而言，基于潜热交换过程的陆面变量—地表气温的耦合强度在全国大部分地区随时间尺度的增加而减弱，基于感热通量的陆气耦合强度在南方大部分地区也随时间尺度的增加逐渐减弱，但在北方大部分地区则表现为随时间尺度增加逐渐增强。相比较于表层土壤湿度与地表气温的耦合强度，次表层土壤湿度与地表气温的耦合强度在中国西北地区明显减弱。Abstract: Given the important role of land–atmosphere coupling (LAC) in extreme hot events, the multi-timescale characteristics of sensitivity-based coupling strength, which is between surface air temperature and land surface conditions in summer, were analyzed over China using the ERA5-Land reanalysis dataset. Results show that LAC strength varies remarkably with regions. In particular, the LAC hot spots where variations in land surface conditions considerably influence the surface air temperature through latent heat exchange are primarily located in Northwest China and Yangtze River basin. However, in terms of LAC defined by the sensitivity of surface air temperature to the land condition anomalies through sensible heat exchange, the hot spots are mainly located in the Hetao–Inner Mongolia areas, southwestern Xinjiang, and part of the south Yangtze River. This indicates that the differences in the spatial distribution of LAC indices can be largely explained by the dominant processes, in which land surface anomalies significantly affect the surface air temperature. Moreover, LAC strength varies considerably among different timescales, with monthly LAC strength being significantly weaker than that of shorter timescales (i.e., daily, pentad, and ten-day). As timescales increasing from one to ten days, the land–air temperature coupling strength based on latent heat flux gets weaker in majority parts of China, while that based on sensible heat flux gets stronger in the northern parts of China but remains a weakened state in other regions. Furthermore, in Northwest China, the coupling strength between the subsurface soil moisture and surface air temperature is weaker than that between the surface soil moisture and surface air temperature.
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图 1 中国区域1981～2013年夏季月尺度的表层土壤—地表气温耦合强度
$ I $ （单位：°C）的空间分布：（a）$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}} $ ；（b）$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}} $ ；（c）$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{T}-\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}} $ ；（d）$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{T}-\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}} $ 。$ I $ 的绝对值越大代表耦合强度越强Figure 1. Spatial distribution of the monthly surface soil–surface air temperature coupling strength (°C) in China during the summer of 1981–2013: (a)
${I}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ; (b)${I}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ ; (c)${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ; (d)${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ . The greater the absolute value, the stronger the coupling strength
图 2 中国区域1981～2013年夏季月尺度的表层（a）土壤湿度—潜热通量相关系数（
$ {r}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}} $ ）、（b）土壤湿度—感热通量相关系数（$ {r}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}} $ ）、（c）土壤温度—潜热通量相关系数（$ {r}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{T}-\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}} $ ）和（d）土壤温度—感热通量相关系数（$ {r}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{T}-\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}} $ ）的空间分布。打点区域代表相关系数通过了置信水平为95%的显著性检验Figure 2. Spatial distribution of the monthly correlation coefficients between surface (a) soil moisture and latent heat flux (
$ {r}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}} $ ), (b) soil moisture and sensible heat flux ($ {r}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}} $ ), (c) soil temperature and latent heat flux ($ {r}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{T}-\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}} $ ), and (d) soil temperature and sensible heat flux ($ {r}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{T}-\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}} $ ), in the summer of 1981–2013 over China. Areas with black dots indicate the correlation coefficients are significant at 95% confidence level
图 3 中国区域1981～2013年夏季月尺度的（a）潜热通量—地表气温相关系数（
$ {r}_{\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}-\mathrm{T}} $ ）、（b）感热通量—地表气温相关系数（$ {r}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}-\mathrm{T}} $ ）和（c）地表气温标准差（单位：°C）的空间分布。（a、b）中打点区域代表相关系数通过了置信水平为95%的显著性检验Figure 3. Spatial distribution of the monthly correlation coefficients between (a) latent heat flux and surface air temperature (
$ {r}_{\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}-\mathrm{T}} $ ), (b) sensible heat flux and surface air temperature ($ {r}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}-\mathrm{T}} $ ), as well as the (c) standard deviation of surface air temperature (°C) , in the summer of 1981–2013 over China. Areas with black dots in (a–b) indicate the correlation coefficients are significant at 95% confidence level
图 4 中国区域1981～2013年夏季（a、d）日、（b、e）候、（c、f）旬尺度的表层土壤湿度—地表气温耦合强度
$ I $ （单位：°C）的气候态分布：（a–c）$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}} $ ；（d–f）$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}} $ 。耦合强度（g、h）$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}} $ 、（i、j）$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}} $ 在不同时间尺度上的差异：（g、i）日与候尺度的差异；（h、j）候与旬尺度的差异。蓝色调表示耦合强度减弱，红色调表示耦合强度增强Figure 4. Spatial distribution of the multi-timescales (a, d) daily, (b, e) pentad, and (e, f) ten-day surface soil moisture–surface air temperature coupling strength (°C) in China during the summer of 1981–2013, including the metrics of (a–c)
$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}} $ , and (d–f)$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}} $ , and the differences between three timescales for (g–h)$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}\mathrm{H}} $ and (i–j)$ {I}_{\mathrm{S}\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{S}\mathrm{H}} $ . The difference between daily and pentad scales is shown in (g, i); while the difference between pentad and ten-day scales is shown in (h, j). Blue and red tones indicate the decrease and increase in coupling strength, respectively
图 5 中国区域1981～2013年夏季（a、d）日、（b、e）候、（c、f）旬尺度的表层土壤温度—地表气温耦合强度
$ I $ （单位：°C）的气候态分布：（a–c）${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ；（d–f）${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ 。耦合强度（g、h）${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ 、（i、j）${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ 在不同时间尺度上的差异：（g、i）日与候尺度的差异；（h、j）候与旬尺度的差异。蓝色调表示耦合强度减弱，红色调表示耦合强度增强Figure 5. Spatial distribution of the multi-timescales (a, d) daily, (b, e) pentad, and (c, f) ten-day surface soil temperature-surface air temperature coupling strength (°C) in China during the summer of 1981–2013, including the metrics of (a–c)
${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ , (d–f)${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ , and the differences between three timescales for (g–h)${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ and (i–j)${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ . The difference between daily and pentad scales is shown in (g, i); while the difference between pentad and ten-day scales is shown in (h, j). Blue and red tones indicate the decrease and increase in coupling strength, respectively
图 6 中国区域1981～2013年夏季日（左）—候（中）—旬（右）尺度的表层（a–c）土壤湿度与潜热通量相关系数（
${r}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ）、（d–f）土壤湿度与感热通量相关系数（${r}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ ）、（g–i）土壤温度与潜热通量相关系数（${r}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ）和（j–l）土壤温度与感热通量相关系数（${r}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ ）的空间分布。打点区域代表相关系数通过了置信水平为95%的显著性检验Figure 6. Spatial distribution of daily (left), pentad (middle), and ten-day (right) correlation coefficients between the surface (a–c) soil moisture and latent heat flux (
${r}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ), (d–f) soil moisture and sensible heat flux (${r}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ ), (g–i) soil temperature and latent heat flux (${r}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ), and (j–l) soil temperature and sensible heat flux (${r}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ ), during the summer of 1981–2013 in China. Areas with black dots indicate that the correlation coefficients are significant at 95% confidence level
图 7 中国区域1981～2013年夏季日（左）—候（中）—旬（右）尺度的（a–c）潜热通量与地表气温相关系数（
${r}_{{\rm{LH}}-{\rm{T}}}$ ）、（d–f）感热通量与地表气温相关系数（${r}_{{\rm{SH}}-{\rm{T}}}$ ）和（g–i）地表气温标准差（单位：°C）的空间分布。（a–f）中打点区域代表相关系数通过了置信水平为95%的显著性检验Figure 7. Spatial distribution of daily (left), pentad (middle), and ten-day (right) correlation coefficients between (a–c) latent heat flux and surface air temperature (
${r}_{{\rm{LH}}-{\rm{T}}}$ ), (d–f) sensible heat flux and surface air temperature (${r}_{{\rm{SH}}-{\rm{T}}}$ ), and the (g–i) standard deviation of surface air temperature (°C), during the summer of 1981–2013 in China. Areas with black dots in (a–f) indicate the correlation coefficients are significant at 95% confidence level
图 8 中国区域1981～2013年夏季月尺度的次表层（a–d）土壤—地表气温耦合强度的空间分布以及（e–h）对应指标的次表层与表层耦合强度的差异（单位：°C）：（a、e）
${I}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ；（b、f）${I}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ ；（c、g）${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ；（d、h）${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ 。（e–h）中蓝色调代表耦合强度减弱，红色调代表耦合强度增强Figure 8. Spatial distribution of the monthly (a–d) subsurface soil–surface air temperature coupling strength (°C) and (e–h) the corresponding differences between subsurface and surface coupling strength for each metric in China during the summer of 1981–2013: (a, e)
${I}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ , (b, f)${I}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ , (c, g)${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ , and (d, h)${I}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ . Blue and red tones in (e–h) indicate the decrease and increase in coupling strength, respectively
图 9 中国区域1981～2013年夏季月尺度的次表层相关系数的空间分布：（a）
${r}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ；（b）${r}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ ；（c）${r}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ；（d）${r}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ 。其中打点区域代表相关系数通过了置信水平为95%的显著性检验Figure 9. Spatial distribution of the monthly correlation coefficients between subsurface (a) soil moisture and latent heat flux (
${r}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ), (b) soil moisture and sensible heat flux (${r}_{{\rm{SM}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ ), (c) soil temperature and latent heat flux (${r}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{LH}}}$ ), and (d) soil temperature and sensible heat flux (${r}_{{\rm{ST}}-{\rm{SH}}}$ ), in the summer of 1981–2013 in China. Areas with black dots indicate the correlation coefficients are significant at 95% confidence level
图 10 中国区域1981～2013年夏季平均的（a）表层和（b）次表层土壤湿度的空间分布
Figure 10. Spatial distribution of the summer-averaged (a) surface and (b) subsurface soil moisture in China during 1981–2013
图 11 1981～2013年夏季中国西北部（36°N～48°N，72°E～107°E）区域平均的次表层和表层土壤湿度（单位：m3/m3）的年际变化曲线。其中实线对应次表层的土壤湿度，虚线则为表层结果
Figure 11. Time series of regional-averaged surface and subsurface soil moisture during the summer of 1981–2013 in Northwest China (NWC; 36°N–48°N and 72°E–107°E). Solid and dashed lines represent the soil moisture of subsurface and surface layers, respectively
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