Impacts of Human Activities on Land Surface Water and Energy—A Case Study in Weishui River Watershed
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摘要: 以沩水河流域为例，基于陆面模式CLM4.5，建立了综合考虑作物种植、地下水开采及灌溉等人类活动的流域陆面水文模型。利用所发展模型，针对1981~2012年，取500 m空间分辨率，探讨人为扰动对陆面过程的影响。研究表明：1）地下水侧向流使得中下游地区地下水位有所提高，平原地下水埋深分布在4 m左右，山区埋深可达到几十米；模拟的叶面积指数较静态MODIS叶面积指数偏大1左右，由此使得种植区月蒸腾量提高约10 mm，土壤蒸发和地表产流有所减少；在灌溉作用下，作物叶面积指数略增长，蒸散发稍有提高，而在假设水稻采用漫灌的情况下，水库灌溉补偿了作物生长产生的水消耗，提高了该区域土壤湿度，增加潜热通量；研究区地下水开采存在但其水文效应并不显著。2）土地覆盖变化自1990年有较大变动，1990~2000年以林地为主，2000年后以耕地为主，其中，1990~2000年土地覆盖类型变化不明显，2001~2012年耕地面积呈先减少再增加又减少的趋势，林地面积则先增加再减少又增加，耕地与林地在2012年所占比例基本持平；同一土地类型内，植被类型变化较为明显，导致陆面水文模拟结果差异较大。Abstract: A typical watershed in the subtropical monsoon region was selected for a case study. A land surface hydrological model for Weishui River Basin was established by coupling the schemes of crop growth, empirical reservoir irrigation and groundwater lateral flow into with a land surface model. First, the model with a constant land cover dataset was used to quantify the impacts of groundwater lateral flow, crop cultivation, groundwater exploitation and reservoir irrigation on land surface water and energy. The land cover change and its effects on the watershed were then investigated using several remote-sensing images and modeling studies. The results show that:1) The groundwater lateral flow makes the simulation more reasonable with lower depth in downstream areas (lower than four meters) and deeper table in mountainous areas (deeper than several decameters); the crop model yields a larger leaf area index than the fixed one, and thus increases the transpiration in cropland, which consumes more water in the watershed and lessens the latent heat flux; irrigation then offsets the water loss by utilizing the surface water and increases the latent heat flux. In addition, it is found that the effect of groundwater pumping is not significant. 2) The land cover changed a lot from 1990 to 2012 with small changes during the 1990-2000 period and large changes during the 2001-2012 period. From 2001 to 2012, the area of cropland first decreased, then increased, and then decreased again (the trend of woodland is opposite); the changes of vegetation types that belong to the same land use type are significant, which leads to large differences in land surface modeling.
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Key words:
- Human activity /
- Land use/cover change /
- Land surface model
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图 2 （a）观测（Obs）、未考虑侧向流模拟（CTL）及考虑侧向流模拟（LTF）的地表温度；（b）未考虑侧向流模拟（CTL）及（c）考虑侧向流模拟（LTF）的地下水埋深与观测对比散点图；（d）提取自Fan et al. (2007)估算的全球地下水埋深；（e）未考虑侧向流模拟(CTL)的地下水埋深；（f）考虑侧向流模拟（LTF）的地下水埋深
Figure 2. (a) Comparison of daily ground temperature from observations and simulations of CTL (without groundwater lateral flow) and LTF (with groundwater lateral flow); scatter diagrams of groundwater table depth from observations and simulations of (b) CTL and (c) LTF; simulations of groundwater table depth spatial pattern from (d) data extracted from global water table depth from Fan et al. (2007), (e) simulation of CTL, and (f) simulation of LTF
图 3 地下水侧向流对陆面水文模拟的作用（气候态LTF减CTL）：（a）地下水埋深；（b）地表温度；（c）土壤温度；（d）10 cm深土壤湿度；（e）100 cm深土壤湿度；（f）地表产流；（g）潜热通量；（h）感热通量
Figure 3. Climatological impacts of groundwater lateral flow on hydrological variables (LTF-CTL): (a) Water table depth; (b) ground temperature; (c) soil temperature; (d) soil moisture at 10-cm depth; (e) soil moisture at 100-cm depth; (f) surface runoff; (g) latent heat flux; (h) sensible heat flux
图 4 作物生长的陆面水文气候态效应（LTCE减LTF）：（a）土壤蒸发；（b）冠层蒸发；（c）植被蒸腾；（d）感热通量；（e）多层平均土壤湿度；（f）地表产流；（g）叶面积指数；（h）平均根系比例
Figure 4. Climatological impacts of crop growth on hydrological variables (LTCE-LTF): (a) Soil evaporation; (b) canopy evaporation; (c) canopy transpiration; (d) sensible heat flux; (e) multi-layer averaged soil moisture; (f) surface runoff; (g) leaf area index; (h) mean fraction of roots
图 5 农村地下水取用的陆面水文气候态效应（LTGW减LTF）：（a）地下水埋深；（b）地表温度；（c）土壤温度；（d）10 cm深土壤湿度；（e）100 cm深土壤湿度；（f）地表产流；（g）潜热通量；（h）感热通量
Figure 5. Climatological impacts of groundwater lateral flow on hydrological variables (LTGW-LTF): (a) Water table depth; (b) ground temperature; (c) soil temperature; (d) soil moisture at 10-cm depth; (e) soil moisture at 100-cm depth; (f) surface runoff; (g) latent heat flux; (h) sensible heat flux
图 6 水库灌溉对径流的影响：（a）黄材水库以下2 km处河道断面流量；（b）沩水河流域出口断面流量
Figure 6. Impacts of reservoir for irrigation on: (a) Discharge at a site slightly lower than the reservoir; (b) discharge at a site near the outlet of the watershed
图 7 水库灌溉的陆面水文气候态效应（LTCESG减LTCE）：（a）土壤蒸发；（b）冠层蒸发；（c）植被蒸腾；（d）感热通量；（e）10 cm深土壤湿度；（f）100 cm深土壤湿度；（g）地表产流；（h）叶面积指数
Figure 7. Climatological impacts of irrigation on hydrological variables (LTCESG-LTCE): (a) Soil evaporation; (b) canopy evaporation; (c) canopy transpiration; (d) sensible heat flux; (e) soil moisture at 10-cm depth; (f) soil moisture at 100-cm depth; (g) surface runoff; (h) leaf area index
图 8 多种人类活动共同作用下陆面水文气候态效应（LTCESG减LTF）：（a）土壤蒸发；（b）冠层蒸发；（c）植被蒸腾；（d）土壤湿度；（e）地表产流；（f）叶面积指数；（g）潜热通量；（h）感热通量
Figure 8. Climatological combined effects of multiple human activities on hydrological variables (LTCESG-LTF): (a) Soil evaporation; (b) canopy evaporation; (c) canopy transpiration; (d) soil moisture; (e) surface runoff; (f) leaf area index; (g) latent heat flux; (h) sensible heat flux
图 9 沩水河流域水分能量要素年际变化：（a）降水量；（b）直接太阳辐射；（c）10 cm深土壤湿度；（d）潜热通量；（e）100 cm深土壤湿度；（f）感热通量
Figure 9. Inter-annual variations of (a) precipitation, (b) solar radiation, (c) soil moisture at 10-cm depth, (d) latent heat flux, (e) soil moisture at 100-cm depth, and (f) sensible heat flux
图 10 沩水河流域水分能量要素季节变化：（a）降水量；（b）直接太阳辐射；（c）10 cm深土壤湿度；（d）潜热通量；（e）100 cm深土壤湿度；（f）感热通量
Figure 10. Seasonal variations of (a) precipitation, (b) solar radiation, (c) soil moisture at 10-cm depth, (d) latent heat flux, (e) soil moisture at 100-cm depth, and (f) sensible heat flux
图 11 基于1:10万土地利用数据的（a）1990年、（b）1995年及（c）2000年沩水河流域土地类型分布；（d）基于1:10万土地利用数据的1990年、1995年及2000年沩水河流域各土地类型所占比例
Figure 11. Land use types in the Weishui River watershed in (a) 1990, (b) 1995, and (c) 2000 based on 1:100000 datasets; (d) proportions of water, woodland, grassland, cropland, and build-up in the Weishui River watershed in 1990, 1995, and 2000 based on 1:100000 datasets
图 12 基于500 m分辨率MODIS产品的（a-l）2001~2012年沩水河流域土地类型分布及（m）2001~2012年沩水河流域各土地类型所占比例
Figure 12. (a-l) Land use types in the Weishui River watershed from 2001 to 2012 and (m) proportions of water, woodland, grassland, cropland, and build-up in the Weishui River watershed from 2001 to 2012 based on 500-m resolution MODIS products
图 13 （a）2009年相比2006年发生土地类型转变的网格（绿色代表发生土地覆盖类型转变的网格）；（b）2012年相比2009年发生土地类型转变的网格（绿色代表发生土地覆盖类型转变的网格）；（c）2006年、2009年及2012年各植被功能类型所占比例
Figure 13. Spatial distributions of land cover change (a) between 2006 and 2009 and (b) between 2009 and 2012 (grid cells with green color denote the places where the land cover changed) and (c) proportions of vegetation types in 2006, 2009, and 2012 based on MODIS products with 500-m resolution
图 14 2006~2009年土地覆盖变化的陆面水文效应：（a）叶面积指数；（b）多层平均土壤湿度；（c）河道水储量；（d）净辐射；（e）潜热通量；（f）感热通量
Figure 14. Climatological impacts of land cover change during 2006-2009 on hydrological variables: (a) Leaf area index; (b) multi-layer averaged soil moisture; (c) river water storage; (d) net radiation; (e) latent heat flux; (f) sensible heat flux
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