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2014 Vol. 31, No. 3

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Development of the IAP Dynamic Global Vegetation Model
ZENG Xiaodong, LI Fang, SONG Xiang
2014, 31(3): 505-514. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3155-3
Abstract:
The IAP Dynamic Global Vegetation Model (IAP-DGVM) has been developed to simulate the distribution and structure of global vegetation within the framework of Earth System Models. It incorporates our group's recent developments of major model components such as the shrub sub-model, establishment and competition parameterization schemes, and a process-based fire parameterization of intermediate complexity. The model has 12 plant functional types, including seven tree, two shrub, and three grass types, plus bare soil. Different PFTs are allowed to coexist within a grid cell, and their state variables are updated by various governing equations describing vegetation processes from fine-scale biogeophysics and biogeochemistry, to individual and population dynamics, to large-scale biogeography. Environmental disturbance due to fire not only affects regional vegetation competition, but also influences atmospheric chemistry and aerosol emissions. Simulations under observed atmospheric conditions showed that the model can correctly reproduce the global distribution of trees, shrubs, grasses, and bare soil. The simulated global dominant vegetation types reproduce the transition from forest to grassland (savanna) in the tropical region, and from forest to shrubland in the boreal region, but overestimate the region of temperate forest.
The Interannual Variation in Monthly Temperature over Northeast China during Summer
CHEN Wei, LU Riyu
2014, 31(3): 515-524. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3102-3
Abstract:
The interannual variations of summer surface air temperature over Northeast China (NEC) were investigated through a month-to-month analysis from May to August. The results suggested that the warmer temperature over NEC is related to a local positive 500-hPa geopotential height anomaly for all four months. However, the teleconnection patterns of atmospheric circulation anomalies associated with the monthly surface air temperature over NEC behave as a distinguished subseasonal variation, although the local positive height anomaly is common from month to month. In May and June, the teleconnection pattern is characterized by a wave train in the upper and middle troposphere from the Indian Peninsula to NEC. This wave train is stronger in June than in May, possibly due to the positive feedback between the wave train and the South Asian rainfall anomaly in June, when the South Asian summer monsoon has been established. In July and August, however, the teleconnection pattern associated with the NEC temperature anomalies is characterized by an East Asia/Pacific (EAP) or Pacific/Japan (PJ) pattern, with the existence of precipitation anomalies over the Philippine Sea and the South China Sea. This pattern is much clearer in July corresponding to the stronger convection over the Philippine Sea compared to that in August.
Effects of Doubled Carbon Dioxide on Rainfall Responses to Large-Scale Forcing: A Two-Dimensional Cloud-Resolving Modeling Study
LI Xiaofan, SHEN Xinyong, LIU Jia
2014, 31(3): 525-531. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3030-2
Abstract:
Rainfall responses to doubled atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration were investigated through the analysis of two pairs of two-dimensional cloud-resolving model sensitivity experiments. One pair of experiments simulated pre-summer heavy rainfall over southern China around the summer solstice, whereas the other pair of experiments simulated tropical rainfall around the winter solstice. The analysis of the time and model domain mean heat budget revealed that the enhanced local atmospheric warming was associated with doubled carbon dioxide through the weakened infrared radiative cooling during the summer solstice. The weakened mean pre-summer rainfall corresponded to the weakened mean infrared radiative cooling. Doubled carbon dioxide increased the mean tropical atmospheric warming via the enhanced mean latent heat in correspondence with the strengthened mean infrared radiative cooling during the winter solstice. The enhanced mean tropical rainfall was associated with the increased mean latent heat.
Effects of Interannual Salinity Variability on the Barrier Layer in the Western-Central Equatorial Pacific: A Diagnostic Analysis from Argo
ZHENG Fei, ZHANG Rong-Hua, ZHU Jiang
2014, 31(3): 532-542. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3061-8
Abstract:
In this paper, interannual variations in the barrier layer thickness (BLT) are analyzed using Argo three-dimensional temperature and salinity data, with a focus on the effects of interannually varying salinity on the evolution of the El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The interannually varying BLT exhibits a zonal seesaw pattern across the equatorial Pacific during ENSO cycles. This phenomenon has been attributed to two different physical processes. During El Nio (La Nia), the barrier layer (BL) is anomalously thin (thick) west of about 160E, and thick (thin) to the east. In the western equatorial Pacific (the western part: 130-160E), interannual variations of the BLT indicate a lead of one year relative to those of the ENSO onset. The interannual variations of the BLT can be largely attributed to the interannual temperature variability, through its dominant effect on the isothermal layer depth (ILD). However, in the central equatorial Pacific (the eastern part: 160E-170W), interannual variations of the BL almost synchronously vary with ENSO, with a lead of about two months relative to those of the local SST. In this region, the interannual variations of the BL are significantly affected by the interannually varying salinity, mainly through its modulation effect on the mixed layer depth (MLD). As evaluated by a one-dimensional boundary layer ocean model, the BL around the dateline induced by interannual salinity anomalies can significantly affect the temperature fields in the upper ocean, indicating a positive feedback that acts to enhance ENSO.
The Effect of the Subtropical Jet on the Rainfall over Southern China in January 2008
ZUO Qunjie, GAO Shouting, LÜ Daren
2014, 31(3): 543-550. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3077-0
Abstract:
The third precipitation episode of China's great snowstorms of 2008 was analyzed using station observations and ECMWF six-hourly data. The variation of the shape of the upper-level subtropical jet played an important role in the rainfall over southern China. With the eastward movement of the trough, the jet shape changed from two straight jets to a tilting jet over China and then it moved southward. With these variations, the south-north movement of ascending flow and precipitation area over southern China occurred.
Nonlinear Measurement Function in the Ensemble Kalman Filter
Youmin TANG, Jaison AMBANDAN, Dake CHEN
2014, 31(3): 551-558. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3117-9
Abstract:
The optimal Kalman gain was analyzed in a rigorous statistical framework. Emphasis was placed on a comprehensive understanding and interpretation of the current algorithm, especially when the measurement function is nonlinear. It is argued that when the measurement function is nonlinear, the current ensemble Kalman Filter algorithm seems to contain implicit assumptions: the forecast of the measurement function is unbiased or the nonlinear measurement function is linearized. While the forecast of the model state is assumed to be unbiased, the two assumptions are actually equivalent. On the above basis, we present two modified Kalman gain algorithms. Compared to the current Kalman gain algorithm, the modified ones remove the above assumptions, thereby leading to smaller estimated errors. This outcome was confirmed experimentally, in which we used the simple Lorenz 3-component model as the test-bed. It was found that in such a simple nonlinear dynamical system, the modified Kalman gain can perform better than the current one. However, the application of the modified schemes to realistic models involving nonlinear measurement functions needs to be further investigated.
Ensemble Retrieval of Atmospheric Temperature Profiles from AIRS
ZHANG Jie, Zhenglong LI, Jun LI, Jinglong LI
2014, 31(3): 559-569. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3094-z
Abstract:
Satellite-based observations provide great opportunities for improving weather forecasting. Physical retrieval of atmospheric profiles from satellite observations is sensitive to the uncertainty of the first guess and other factors. In order to improve the accuracy of the physical retrieval, an ensemble methodology was developed with an emphasis on perturbing the first guess. In the methodology, a normal probability density function (PDF) is used to select the optimal profile from the ensemble retrievals. The ensemble retrieval algorithm contains four steps: (2) regression retrieval for original first guess; (3) perturbation of the original first guess to generate new first guesses (ensemble first guesses); (4) using the ensemble first guesses and nonlinear iterative physical retrieval to generate ensemble physical results; and (5) the final optimal profile is selected from the ensemble physical results by using PDF. Temperature eigenvectors (EVs) were used to generate the perturbation and generate the ensemble first guess. Compared with the regular temperature profile retrievals from the Atmospheric InfraRed Sounder (AIRS), the ensemble retrievals RMSE of temperature profiles selected by the PDF was reduced between 150 and 320 hPa and below 400 hPa, with a maximum improvement of 0.3 K at 400 hPa. The bias was also reduced in many layers, with a maximum improvement of 0.69 K at 460 hPa. The combined optimal (CombOpt) profile and a mean optimal (MeanOpt) profile of all ensemble physical results were improved below 150 hPa. The MeanOpt profile was better than the CombOpt profile, and was regarded as the final optimal (FinOpt) profile. This study lays the foundation for improving temperature retrievals from hyper-spectral infrared radiance measurements.
Simulating the Intraseasonal Variation of the East Asian Summer Monsoon by IAP AGCM4.0
SU Tonghua, XUE Feng*, ZHANG He
2014, 31(3): 570-580. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3029-8
Abstract:
This study focuses on the intraseasonal variation of the East Asian summer monsoon (EASM) simulated by IAP AGCM 4.0, the fourth-generation atmospheric general circulation model recently developed at the Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. In general, the model simulates the intraseasonal evolution of the EASM and the related rain belt. Besides, the model also simulates the two northward jumps of the western Pacific subtropical high (WPSH), which are closely related to the convective activities in the warm pool region and Rossby wave activities in high latitudes. Nevertheless, some evident biases in the model were found to exist. Due to a stronger WPSH, the model fails to simulate the rain belt in southern China during May and June. Besides, the model simulates a later retreat of the EASM, which is attributed to the overestimated land-sea thermal contrast in August. In particular, the timing of the two northward jumps of the WPSH in the model is not coincident with the observation, with a later jump by two pentads for the first jump and an earlier jump by one pentad for the second, i.e., the interval between the two jumps is shorter than the observation. This bias is mainly ascribed to a shorter oscillating periodicity of convection in the tropical northwestern Pacific.
Lightning Activity and Its Relation to the Intensity of Typhoons over the Northwest Pacific Ocean
PAN Lunxiang, QIE Xiushu, WANG Dongfang
2014, 31(3): 581-592. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3115-y
Abstract:
Data from the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) were used to analyze the lightning activity and the relationship between maximum sustained wind and lightning rate in 69 tropical cyclones over the Northwest Pacific Ocean from 2005 to 2009. The minimum lightning density was observed in the category 2 typhoon Kong-Rey (2007), with a value of only 1.15 d-1 (100 km)-2. The maximum lightning density occurred in the category 2 typhoon Mitag (2007), with a value of 510.42 d-1 (100 km)-2. The average lightning density decreased with radius from the typhoon center in both weak (categories 13) and super (categories 45) typhoons. The average lightning density in the inner core of super typhoons was more than twice as large as that for weak typhoons. Both groups of typhoons showed a near-monotonic decrease in lightning density with radius. Results also showed that lightning activity was more active in typhoons that made landfall than in those that did not. The mean correlation coefficient between the accumulated flashes within a 600-km radius and the maximum wind speed in the weak typhoons and super typhoons was 0.81 and 0.74, respectively. For more than 78% (56%) of the super (weak) typhoons, the lightning activity peaked before the maximum sustained wind speed, with the most common leading time being 30 (60) h. The results suggest that, for the Northwest Pacific Ocean, lightning activity might be used as a measurement of the intensification of typhoons.
Temporal and Spatial Variations of Global Deep Cloud Systems Based on CloudSat and CALIPSO Satellite Observations
PENG Jie, ZHANG Hua, Zhanqing LI
2014, 31(3): 593-603. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3055-6
Abstract:
The spatial and temporal global distribution of deep clouds was analyzed using a four-year dataset (2007-10) based on observations from CloudSat and CALIPSO. Results showed that in the Northern Hemisphere, the number of deep cloud systems (DCS) reached a maximum in summer and a minimum in winter. Seasonal variations in the number of DCS varied zonally in the Southern Hemisphere. DCS occurred most frequently over central Africa, the northern parts of South America and Australia, and Tibet. The mean cloud-top height of deep cloud cores (TDCC) decreased toward high latitudes in all seasons. DCS with the highest TDCC and deepest cores occurred over east and south Asian monsoon regions, west-central Africa and northern South America. The width of DCS (WDCS) increased toward high latitudes in all seasons. In general, DCS were more developed in the horizontal than in the vertical direction over high latitudes and vice versa over lower latitudes. Findings from this study show that different mechanisms are behind the development of DCS at different latitudes. Most DCS at low latitudes are deep convective clouds which are highly developed in the vertical direction but cover a relatively small area in the horizontal direction; these DCS have the highest TDCC and smallest WDCS. The DCS at midlatitudes are more likely to be caused by cyclones, so they have less vertical development than DCS at low latitudes. DCS at high latitudes are mainly generated by large frontal systems, so they have the largest WDCS and the smallest TDCC.
Aircraft Observations of Liquid and Ice in Midlatitude Mixed-Phase Clouds
ZHAO Zhen, LEI Hengchi
2014, 31(3): 604-610. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3083-2
Abstract:
This paper reports airborne measurements of midlatitude altostratus clouds observed over Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China on 3 March 2007. The case demonstrates mixed-phase conditions at altitudes from 3200 to 4600 m (0C to7.6C), with liquid water content ranging from 0.01 to 0.09 g m-3. In the observed mixed-phase cloud, liquid water content exhibited a bimodal distribution, whereas the maximum ice particle concentration was located in the middle part of the cloud. The liquid and ice particle data showed significant horizontal variability on the scale of a few hundred meters. The cloud droplet concentration varied greatly over the horizontal sampling area. There was an inverse relationship between the cloud droplet concentration and ice particle concentration. A gamma distribution provided the best description of the cloud droplet spectra. The liquid droplet distributions were found to increase in both size and concentration with altitude. It was inferred from the profile of the spectra parameters that the cloud droplet sizes tend to form a quasi-monodisperse distribution. Ice particle spectra in the cloud were fitted well by an exponential distribution. Finally, a remarkable power law relationship was found between the slope () and intercept (N0) parameters of the exponential size distribution.
Anatomizing the Ocean's Role in Maintaining the Pacific Decadal Variability
Jia-Yuh YU, Cheng-Wei CHANG
2014, 31(3): 611-623. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3032-0
Abstract:
The role of ocean dynamics in maintaining the Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV) was investigated based on simulation results from the Parallel Ocean Program (POP) ocean general circulation model developed at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). A long-term control simulation of the LANL-POP model forced by a reconstructed coupled wind stress field over the period 1949-2001 showed that the ocean model not only simulates a reasonable climatology, but also produces a climate variability pattern very similar to observed PDV. In the Equatorial Pacific (EP) region, the decadal warming is confined in the thin surface layer. Beneath the surface, a strong compensating cooling, accompanied by a basin-wide-scale overturning circulation in opposition to the mean flow, occurs in the thermocline layer. In the North Pacific (NP) region, the decadal variability nonetheless exhibits a relatively monotonous pattern, characterized by the dominance of anomalous cooling and eastward flows. A term balance analysis of the perturbation heat budget equation was conducted to highlight the ocean's role in maintaining the PDV-like variability over the EP and NP regions. The analyses showed that strong oceanic adjustment must occur in the equatorial thermocline in association with the anomalous overturning circulation in order to maintain the PDV-like variability, including a flattening of the equatorial thermocline slpoe and an enhancement of the upper ocean's stratification (stability), as the climate shifts from a colder regime toward a warmer one. On the other hand, the oceanic response in the extratropical region seems to be confined to the surface layer, without much participation from the subsurface oceanic dynamics.
The Influences of Macro- and Microphysical Characteristics of Sea-Fog on Fog-Water Chemical Composition
YUE Yanyu, NIU Shengjie, ZHAO Lijuan, ZHANG Yu, XU Feng
2014, 31(3): 624-636. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3059-2
Abstract:
During a sea-fog field observation campaign on Donghai Island in the spring of 2011, fog-water, visibility, meteorological elements, and fog droplet spectra were measured. The main cations and anions in 191 fog-water samples were Na+, NH4+, H+, NO3-, Cl- and SO42-, and the average concentrations of cations and anions were 2630 and 2970 eq L-1, respectively. The concentrations of Na+ and Cl- originated from the ocean were high. The enhancement of anthropogenic pollution might have contributed to the high concentration of NH4+, H+, and NO3-. The average values of pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were 3.34 and 505 S cm-1, respectively, with a negative correlation between them. Cold fronts associated with cyclonic circulations promoted the decline of ion loadings. Air masses from coastal areas had the highest ion loadings, contrary to those from the sea. The ranges of wind speed, wind direction and temperature corresponding to the maximum total ion concentration (TIC) were 3.54 m s-1, 7990 and 21C22C, respectively. In view of the low correlation coefficients, a new parameter Lr was proposed as a predictive parameter for TIC and the correlation coefficient increased to 0.74. Based on aerosol concentrations during the sea-fog cases in 2010, we confirmed that fog-water chemical composition also depended on the species and sizes of aerosol particles. When a dust storm passed through Donghai Island, the number concentration of large aerosol particles (with diameter 1 m) increased. This caused the ratio of Ca2+/Na+ in fog-water to increase significantly.
The Relationship between the El Nio/La Nio Cycle and the Transition Chains of Four Atmospheric Oscillations. Part II: The Relationship and a New Approach to the Prediction of El Nio
PENG Jingbei, CHEN Lieting, ZHANG Qingyun
2014, 31(3): 637-646. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-2279-9
Abstract:
The authors explored the connection and transition chains of the Northern Oscillation (NO) and the North Pacific Oscillation (NPO), the Southern Oscillation (SO), and the Antarctic Oscillation (AAO) on the interannual timescale in a companion paper. In this study, the connection between the transition chains of the four oscillations (the NO and NPO, the SO and AAO) and the El Nio/La Nio cycle were examined. It was found that during the transitions of the four oscillations, alternate anticyclonic/cyclonic correlation centers propagated from the Western Pacific to the Eastern Pacific along both sides of the equator. Between the anticyclonic/cyclonic correlation centers, the zonal wind anomalies also moved eastwardly, favoring the advection of sea surface temperature anomalies from the tropical Western Pacific to the Eastern Pacific. When the anticyclonic anomalies arrived in the Eastern Pacific, the positive phase of NO/SO and La Nio were established and vice versa. Thus, in 46 years, with an entire transition chain of the four oscillations, an El Nio/La Nio cycle completed. The eastward propagation of the covarying anomalies of the sea level pressure, zonal wind, and sea surface temperature was critical to the transition chains of the four oscillations and the cycle of El Nio/La Nio. Based on their close link, a new empirical prediction method of the timing of El Nio by the transition chains of the four oscillations was proposed. The assessment provided confidence in the ability of the new method to supply information regarding the long-term variations of the ocean and atmosphere in the tropical Pacific.
Role of Parameter Errors in the Spring Predictability Barrier for ENSO Events in the Zebiak-Cane Model
YU Liang, MU Mu, Yanshan YU
2014, 31(3): 647-656. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3058-3
Abstract:
The impact of both initial and parameter errors on the spring predictability barrier (SPB) is investigated using the Zebiak-Cane model (ZC model). Previous studies have shown that initial errors contribute more to the SPB than parameter errors in the ZC model. Although parameter errors themselves are less important, there is a possibility that nonlinear interactions can occur between the two types of errors, leading to larger prediction errors compared with those induced by initial errors alone. In this case, the impact of parameter errors cannot be overlooked. In the present paper, the optimal combination of these two types of errors [i.e., conditional nonlinear optimal perturbation (CNOP) errors] is calculated to investigate whether this optimal error combination may cause a more notable SPB phenomenon than that caused by initial errors alone. Using the CNOP approach, the CNOP errors and CNOP-I errors (optimal errors when only initial errors are considered) are calculated and then three aspects of error growth are compared: (1) the tendency of the seasonal error growth; (2) the prediction error of the sea surface temperature anomaly; and (3) the pattern of error growth. All three aspects show that the CNOP errors do not cause a more significant SPB than the CNOP-I errors. Therefore, this result suggests that we could improve the prediction of the El Nio during spring by simply focusing on reducing the initial errors in this model.
Sensitivities of Tornadogenesis to Drop Size Distribution in a Simulated Subtropical Supercell over Eastern China
ZHENG Kailin, CHEN Baojun
2014, 31(3): 657-668. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3143-7
Abstract:
Numerical simulations with the Advanced Regional Prediction System (ARPS) model were performed to investigate the impact of microphysical drop size distribution (DSD) on tornadogenesis in a subtropical supercell thunderstorm over Anhui Province, eastern China. Sensitivity experiments with different intercept parameters of rain, hail and snow DSDs in a Lin-type microphysics scheme were conducted. Results showed that rain and hail DSDs have a significant impact on the simulated storm both microphysically and dynamically. DSDs characterized by larger (smaller) intercepts have a smaller (larger) particle size and a lower (higher) mass-weighted mean fall velocity, and produce relatively stronger (weaker) and wider (narrower) cold pools through enhanced (reduced) rain evaporation and hail melting processes, which are then less favorable (favorable) for tornadogenesis. However, tornadogenesis will also be suppressed by the weakened mid-level mesocyclone when the cold pool is too weak. When compared to a U.S. Great Plain case, the two microphysical processes are more sensitive to DSD variations in the present case with a higher melting level and deeper warm layer. This suggests that DSD-related cloud microphysics has a stronger influence on tornadogenesis in supercells over the subtropics than the U.S. Great Plains.
Heat Budget of the South-Central Equatorial Pacific in CMIP3 Models
LIU Xiangcui, LIU Hailong
2014, 31(3): 669-680. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-2299-5
Abstract:
Using data from 17 coupled models and nine sets of corresponding Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP) results, we investigated annual and seasonal variation biases in the upper 50 m of the south-central equatorial Pacific, with a focus on the double-ITCZ bias, and examined the causes for the amplitude biases by using heat budget analysis. The results showed that, in the research region, most of the models simulate SSTs that are higher than or similar to observed. The simulated seasonal phase is close to that observed, but the amplitudes of more than half of the model results are larger than or equal to observations. Heat budget analysis demonstrated that strong shortwave radiation in individual atmospheric models is the main factor that leads to high SST values and that weak southward cold advection is an important mechanism for maintaining a high SST. For seasonal circulation, large surface shortwave radiation amplitudes cause large SST amplitudes.
Analysis of the Variability of Canopy Resistance over a Desert Steppe Site in Inner Mongolia, China
ZHANG Guo, ZHOU Guangsheng, CHEN Fei, WANG Yu
2014, 31(3): 681-692. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3071-6
Abstract:
Canopy resistance substantially affects the partitioning of available energy over vegetated surfaces. This study analyzed the variability of canopy resistance and associated driving environmental factors over a desert steppe site in Inner Mongolia, China, through the use of eddy-flux and meteorological data collected from 2008 to 2010. Distinct seasonal and interannual variabilities in canopy resistance were identified within those three years, and these variabilities were controlled primarily by precipitation. Strong interannual variability was found in vapor pressure deficit (VPD), similar to that of air temperature. Based on the principal component regression method, the analysis of the relative contribution of five major environmental factors [soil-water content (SWC), leaf-area index (LAI), photosynthetically active radiation (Kp), VPD, and air temperature] to canopy resistance showed that the canopy-resistance variation was most responsive to SWC (with 35%contribution), followed by LAI, especially for water-stressed soil conditions (20% influence), and VPD (consistently with an influence of approximately 20%). Canopy-resistance variations did not respond to Kpdue to the small interannual variability in Kpduring the three years. These analyses were used to develop a new exponential function of water stress for the widely used Jarvis scheme, which substantially improved the calculation of canopy resistance and latent heat fluxes, especially for moist and wet soils, and effectively reduced the high bias in evaporation estimated by the original Jarvis scheme. This study highlighted the important control of canopy resistance on plant evaporation and growth for the investigated desert steppe site with a relatively low LAI.
Improvement of the Semi-Lagrangian Advection Scheme in the GRAPES Model: Theoretical Analysis and Idealized Tests
HUANG Bo, CHEN Dehui, LI Xingliang, LI Chao
2014, 31(3): 693-704. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3086-z
Abstract:
The Global/Regional Assimilation and PrEdiction System (GRAPES) is the new-generation numerical weather prediction (NWP) system developed by the China Meteorological Administration. It is a fully compressible non-hydrostatical global/regional unified model that uses a traditional semi-Lagrangian advection scheme with cubic Lagrangian interpolation (referred to as the SL_CL scheme). The SL_CL scheme has been used in many operational NWP models, but there are still some deficiencies, such as the damping effects due to the interpolation and the relatively low accuracy. Based on \hboxReich's semi-Lagrangian advection scheme (referred to as the R2007 scheme), the Re_R2007 scheme that uses the low- and high-order B-spline function for interpolation at the departure point, is developed in this paper. One- and two-dimensional idealized tests in the rectangular coordinate system with uniform grid cells were conducted to compare the Re_R2007 scheme and the SL_CL scheme. The numerical results showed that: (2) the damping effects were remarkably reduced with the Re_R2007 scheme; and (3) the normalized errors of the Re_R2007 scheme were about 7.5 and 3 times smaller than those of the SL_CL scheme in one- and two-dimensional tests, respectively, indicating the higher accuracy of the Re_R2007 scheme. Furthermore, two solid-body rotation tests were conducted in the latitude-longitude spherical coordinate system with non-uniform grid cells, which also verified the Re_R2007 scheme's advantages. Finally, in comparison with other global advection schemes, the Re_R2007 scheme was competitive in terms of accuracy and flow independence. An encouraging possibility for the application of the Re_R2007 scheme to the GRAPES model is provided.
Satellite-Based Estimation of Daily Average Net Radiation under Clear-Sky Conditions
HOU Jiangtao, JIA Gensuo, ZHAO Tianbao, WANG Hesong, TANG Bohui
2014, 31(3): 705-720. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3047-6
Abstract:
Daily average net radiation (DANR) is an important variable for estimating evapotranspiration from satellite data at regional scales, and is used for atmospheric and hydrologic modeling, as well as ecosystem management. A scheme is proposed to estimate the DANR over large heterogeneous areas under clear-sky conditions using only remotely sensed data. The method was designed to overcome the dependence of DANR estimates on ground data, and to map spatially consistent and reasonably distributed DANR, by using various land and atmospheric data products retrieved from MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) data. An improved sinusoidal model was used to retrieve the diurnal variations of downward shortwave radiation using a single instantaneous value from satellites. The downward shortwave component of DANR was directly obtained from this instantaneous value, and the upward shortwave component was estimated using satellite-derived albedo products. Four observations of air temperature from MOD07_L2 and MYD07_L2 data products were used to derive the downward longwave component of DANR, while the upward longwave component was estimated using the land surface temperature (LST) and the surface emissivity from MOD11_L2. Compared to in situ observations at the cropland and grassland sites located in Tongyu, northern China, the root mean square error (RMSE) of DANR estimated for both sites under clear-sky conditions was 37 W m-2 and 40 W m-2, respectively. The errors in estimation of DANR were comparable to those from previous satellite-based methods. Our estimates can be used for studying the surface radiation balance and evapotranspiration.
Evaluation of Cloud Vertical Structure Simulated by Recent BCC_AGCM Versions through Comparison With CALIPSO-GOCCP Data
WANG Fang, XIN Xiaoge, WANG Zaizhi, CHENG Yanjie, ZHANG Jie, YANG Song
2014, 31(3): 721-733. doi: 10.1007/s00376-013-3099-7
Abstract:
The abilities of BCC_AGCM2.1 and BCC_AGCM2.2 to simulate the annual-mean cloud vertical structure (CVS) were evaluated through comparison with GCM-Oriented CALIPSO Cloud Product (CALIPSO-GOCCP) data. BCC_AGCM2.2 has a dynamical core and physical processes that are consistent with BCC_AGCM2.1, but has a higher horizontal resolution. Results showed that both BCC_AGCM versions underestimated the global-mean total cloud cover (TCC), middle cloud cover (MCC) and low cloud cover (LCC), and that BCC_AGCM2.2 underestimated the global-mean high cloud cover (HCC). The global-mean cloud cover shows a systematic decrease from BCC_AGCM2.1 to BCC_AGCM2.2, especially for HCC. Geographically, HCC is significantly overestimated in the tropics, particularly by BCC_AGCM2.1, while LCC is generally overestimated over extra-tropical lands, but significantly underestimated over most of the oceans, especially for subtropical marine stratocumulus clouds. The leading EOF modes of CVS were extracted. The BCC_AGCMs perform well in reproducing EOF1, but with a larger variance explained. The two models also capture the basic features of EOF3, except an obvious deficiency in eigenvector peaks. EOF2 has the largest simulation biases in both position and strength of eigenvector peaks. Furthermore, we investigated the effects of CVS on relative shortwave and longwave cloud radiative forcing (RSCRF and RLCRF). Both BCC_AGCM versions successfully reproduce the sign of regression coefficients, except for RLCRF in PC1. However, the RSCRF relative contributions from PC1 and PC2 are overestimated, while the relative contribution from PC3 is underestimated in both BCC_AGCM versions. The RLCRF relative contribution is underestimated for PC2 and overestimated for PC3.