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2016 Vol. 33, No. 3

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The Reliability of Global and Hemispheric Surface Temperature Records
Philip JONES
2016, 33(3): 269-282. doi: 10.1007/s00376-015-5194-4
Abstract:
The purpose of this review article is to discuss the development and associated estimation of uncertainties in the global and hemispheric surface temperature records. The review begins by detailing the groups that produce surface temperature datasets. After discussing the reasons for similarities and differences between the various products, the main issues that must be addressed when deriving accurate estimates, particularly for hemispheric and global averages, are then considered. These issues are discussed in the order of their importance for temperature records at these spatial scales: biases in SST data, particularly before the 1940s; the exposure of land-based thermometers before the development of louvred screens in the late 19th century; and urbanization effects in some regions in recent decades. The homogeneity of land-based records is also discussed; however, at these large scales it is relatively unimportant. The article concludes by illustrating hemispheric and global temperature records from the four groups that produce series in near-real time.
Projected Shifts in Köppen Climate Zones over China and Their Temporal Evolution in CMIP5 Multi-Model Simulations
Duo CHAN, Qigang WU, Guixiang JIANG, Xianglin DAI
2016, 33(3): 283-293. doi: 10.1007/s00376-015-5077-8
Abstract:
Previous studies have examined the projected climate types in China by 2100. This study identified the emergence time of climate shifts at a 1° scale over China from 1990 to 2100 and investigated the temporal evolution of Köppen-Geiger climate classifications computed from CMIP5 multi-model outputs. Climate shifts were detected in transition regions (7%-8% of China's land area) by 2010, including rapid replacement of mixed forest (Dwb) by deciduous forest (Dwa) over Northeast China, strong shrinkage of alpine climate type (ET) on the Tibetan Plateau, weak northward expansion of subtropical winter-dry climate (Cwa) over Southeast China, and contraction of oceanic climate (Cwb) in Southwest China. Under all future RCP (Representative Concentration Pathway) scenarios, the reduction of Dwb in Northeast China and ET on the Tibetan Plateau was projected to accelerate substantially during 2010-30, and half of the total area occupied by ET in 1990 was projected to be redistributed by 2040. Under the most severe scenario (RCP8.5), sub-polar continental winter dry climate over Northeast China would disappear by 2040-50, ET on the Tibetan Plateau would disappear by 2070, and the climate types in 35.9% and 50.8% of China's land area would change by 2050 and 2100, respectively. The results presented in this paper indicate imperative impacts of anthropogenic climate change on China's ecoregions in future decades.
Simulation of the Interface between the Indian Summer Monsoon and the East Asian Summer Monsoon: Intercomparison between MPI-ESM and ECHAM5/MPI-OM
Yiran GUO, Jie CAO, Hui LI, Jian WANG, Yuchao DING
2016, 33(3): 294-308. doi: 10.1007/s00376-015-5073-z
Abstract:
The time-mean and interannual variability of the interface between the Indian summer monsoon and East Asian summer monsoon (IIE) was assessed using both Max-Planck-Institute Earth System Model (MPI-ESM) and ECHAM5/MPI-OM and by calculating diagnostics and skill metrics around the IIE area. Progress has been made in modeling these aspects by moving from ECHAM5/MPI-OM to MPI-ESM. MPI-ESM is more skillful than ECHAM5/MPI-OM in modeling the time-mean state and the extreme condition of the IIE. Though simulation of the interannual variability significantly deviates to some extent in both MPI-ESM and ECHAM5/MPI-OM, MPI-ESM-LR shows better skill in reflecting the relationship among sea surface temperature anomalies over the Pacific, circulation anomalies over East Asia, and IIE variability. The temperature becomes warmer under the RCP2.6 and RCP8.5 scenarios in comparison with the historical experiments, but the position of the IIE and the key physical process in relation to the IIE variability almost remains the same, suggesting that the Indian summer monsoon tends to change in phase with the East Asian summer monsoon under each RCP scenario. The relatively realistic description of the physical processes modulated by terrain in MPI-ESM may be one of the most important reasons why MPI-ESM performs better in simulating the IIE.
Impact of Planetary Wave Reflection on Tropospheric Blocking over the Urals-Siberia Region in January 2008
Debashis NATH, Wen CHEN
2016, 33(3): 309-318. doi: 10.1007/s00376-015-5052-4
Abstract:
Planetary wave reflection from the stratosphere played a significant role in changing the tropospheric circulation pattern over Eurasia in mid-January 2008. We studied the 2008 event and compared with composite analysis (winters of 2002/2003, 2004/2005, 2006/2007, 2007/2008, 2010/2011 and 2011/2012), when the downward coupling was stronger, by employing time-lagged singular value decomposition analysis on the geopotential height field. In the Northern Hemisphere, the geopotential fields were decomposed into zonal mean and wave components to compare the relative covariance patterns. It was found that the wavenumber 1 (WN1) component was dominant compared with the wavenumber 2 (WN2) component and zonal mean process. For the WN1 field, the covariance was much higher (lower) for the negative (positive) lag, with a prominent peak around +15 days when the leading stratosphere coupled strongly with the troposphere. It contributed to the downward coupling due to reflection, when the stratosphere exhibited a partially reflective background state. We also analyzed the evolution of the WN1 anomaly and heat flux anomaly, both in the troposphere and stratosphere, during January-March 2008. The amplitude of the tropospheric WN1 pattern reached a maximum and was consistent with a downward wave coupling event influenced by the stratospheric WN1 anomaly at 10 hPa. This was consistent with the reflection of the WN1 component over Eurasia, which triggered an anomalous blocking high in the Urals-Siberia region. We further clarified the impact of reflection on the tropospheric WN1 field and hence the tropospheric circulation pattern by changing the propagation direction during and after the event.
Detecting the Origins of Moisture over Southeast China: Seasonal Variation and Heavy Rainfall
Xiuzhen LI, Wen ZHOU, Yongqin David CHEN
2016, 33(3): 319-329. doi: 10.1007/s00376-015-4197-5
Abstract:
To examine the ability of the Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model to detect the origins and paths of moisture supplied to Southeast China, trajectories of air particles released over Southeast China were traced backward during 1 April 2012 to 31 March 2013 and three typical regional persistent heavy rainfall events. The HYSPLIT model provides more insightful information than water vapor flux. Analysis of the specific humidity along the trajectories revealed the origins of moisture and their contributions to the moisture supply in Southeast China. In the boreal summer half year, four key moisture transport paths from the eastern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, South China Sea (SCS), and western North Pacific (WNP) contribute 10%, 20%, 31%, and 16% of the moisture to Southeast China, respectively. In the winter half year, the contributions of the paths from the WNP and North China double. Examination of heavy rainfall events showed that under tropical storm conditions, all moisture transport routines are rotated cyclonically before reaching Southeast China. The invasion of cold air can trigger heavy rainfall in both the summer and winter half years but plays different roles: it does not contribute to the moisture supply but plays a key role in converging and uplifting the moisture in the summer half year, while it supplies a great amount of moisture in the winter half year as it absorbs abundant moisture in crossing the WNP.
Phase Transition of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation and Decadal Variation of the East Asian Summer Monsoon in the 20th Century
Xiao DONG, Feng XUE
2016, 33(3): 330-338. doi: 10.1007/s00376-015-5130-7
Abstract:
This paper focuses on the relationship between the phase transition of the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) and decadal variation of the East Asian summer monsoon (EASM) in the twentieth century. The first transition occurred in the 1940s, with an enhanced SST in the North Pacific and reduced SST in the tropical eastern Pacific and South Indian Ocean. In agreement with these SST changes, a higher SLP was found in most parts of the Pacific, while a lower SLP was found in the North Pacific and most parts of the Indian Ocean. In this case, the EASM was largely enhanced with a southerly anomaly in the lower troposphere along the east coast of China. Correspondingly, there was less rainfall in the Yangtze River valley and more rainfall in northern and southern China. An opposite change was found when the PDO reversed its phase in the late 1970s. In the tropical Indian Ocean and western Pacific, however, the SST was enhanced in both the 1940s and 1970s. As a result, the western Pacific subtropical high (WPSH) tended to extend westward with a larger magnitude in the 1970s. The major features were reasonably reproduced by an atmospheric general circulation model (IAP AGCM4.0) prescribed with observed SST and sea ice. On the other hand, the westward extension of the WPSH was exaggerated in the 1970s, while it was underestimated in the 1940s. Besides, the spatial pattern of the simulated summer rainfall in eastern China tended to shift southward compared with the observation.
Assessment of Interannual Sea Surface Salinity Variability and Its Effects on the Barrier Layer in the Equatorial Pacific Using BNU-ESM
Hai ZHI, Rong-Hua ZHANG, Fei ZHENG, Pengfei LIN, Lanning WANG, Peng YU
2016, 33(3): 339-351. doi: 10.1007/s00376-015-5163-y
Abstract:
As salinity stratification is necessary to form the barrier layer (BL), the quantification of its role in BL interannual variability is crucial. This study assessed salinity variability and its effect on the BL in the equatorial Pacific using outputs from Beijing Normal University Earth System Model (BNU-ESM) simulations. A comparison between observations and the BNU-ESM simulations demonstrated that BNU-ESM has good capability in reproducing most of the interannual features observed in nature. Despite some discrepancies in both magnitude and location of the interannual variability centers, the displacements of sea surface salinity (SSS), barrier layer thickness (BLT), and SST simulated by BNU-ESM in the equatorial Pacific are realistic. During El Niño, for example, the modeled interannual anomalies of BLT, mixed layer depth, and isothermal layer depth, exhibit good correspondence with observations, including the development and decay of El Niño in the central Pacific, whereas the intensity of the interannual variabilities is weaker relative to observations. Due to the bias in salinity simulations, the SSS front extends farther west along the equator, whereas BLT variability is weaker in the central Pacific than in observations. Further, the BNU-ESM simulations were examined to assess the relative effects of salinity and temperature variability on BLT. Consistent with previous observation-based analyses, the interannual salinity variability can make a significant contribution to BLT relative to temperature in the western-central equatorial Pacific.
Weak ENSO Asymmetry Due to Weak Nonlinear Air-Sea Interaction in CMIP5 Climate Models
Yan SUN, Fan WANG, De-Zheng SUN
2016, 33(3): 352-364. doi: 10.1007/s00376-015-5018-6
Abstract:
State-of-the-art climate models have long-standing intrinsic biases that limit their simulation and projection capabilities. Significantly weak ENSO asymmetry and weakly nonlinear air-sea interaction over the tropical Pacific was found in CMIP5 (Coupled Model Intercomparison Project, Phase 5) climate models compared with observation. The results suggest that a weak nonlinear air-sea interaction may play a role in the weak ENSO asymmetry. Moreover, a weak nonlinearity in air-sea interaction in the models may be associated with the biases in the mean climate——the cold biases in the equatorial central Pacific. The excessive cold tongue bias pushes the deep convection far west to the western Pacific warm pool region and suppresses its development in the central equatorial Pacific. The deep convection has difficulties in further moving to the eastern equatorial Pacific, especially during extreme El Niño events, which confines the westerly wind anomaly to the western Pacific. This weakens the eastern Pacific El Niño events, especially the extreme El Niño events, and thus leads to the weakened ENSO asymmetry in climate models. An accurate mean state structure (especially a realistic cold tongue and deep convection) is critical to reproducing ENSO events in climate models. Our evaluation also revealed that ENSO statistics in CMIP5 climate models are slightly improved compared with those of CMIP3. The weak ENSO asymmetry in CMIP5 is closer to the observation. It is more evident in CMIP5 that strong ENSO activities are usually accompanied by strong ENSO asymmetry, and the diversity of ENSO amplitude is reduced.
Climatology of Lightning Activity in South China and Its Relationships to Precipitation and Convective Available Potential Energy
Dong ZHENG, Yijun ZHANG, Qing MENG, Luwen CHEN, Jianru DAN
2016, 33(3): 365-376. doi: 10.1007/s00376-015-5124-5
Abstract:
This study examined lightning activity and its relationship to precipitation and convective available potential energy (CAPE) in South China during 2001-12, based on data from the Guangdong Lightning Location System, the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission satellite, and the ERA-Interim dataset. Two areas of high lightning density are identified: one over the Pearl River Delta, and the other to the north of Leizhou Peninsula. Large peak-current cloud-to-ground (LPCCG) lightning (>75 kA) shows weaker land-offshore contrasts than total CG lightning, in which negative cloud-to-ground (NCG) lightning occurs more prominently than positive cloud-to-ground (PCG) lightning on land. While the frequency of total CG lightning shows a main peak in June and a second peak in August, the LPCCG lightning over land shows only a single peak in June. The ratio of positive LPCCG to total lightning is significantly greater during February-April than during other times of the year. Diurnally, CG lightning over land shows only one peak in the afternoon, whereas CG lightning offshore shows morning and afternoon peaks. The rain yield per flash is on the order of 107-108 kg per flash across the analysis region, and its spatial distribution is opposite to that of lightning density. Our data show that lightning activity over land is more sensitive than that over offshore waters to CAPE. The relationships between lightning activity and both precipitation and CAPE are associated with convection activity in the analysis region.
A Global Spectral Element Model for Poisson Equations and Advective Flow over a Sphere
Huan MEI, Faming WANG, Zhong ZENG, Zhouhua QIU, Linmao YIN, Liang LI
2016, 33(3): 377-390. doi: 10.1007/s00376-015-5001-2
Abstract:
A global spherical Fourier-Legendre spectral element method is proposed to solve Poisson equations and advective flow over a sphere. In the meridional direction, Legendre polynomials are used and the region is divided into several elements. In order to avoid coordinate singularities at the north and south poles in the meridional direction, Legendre-Gauss-Radau points are chosen at the elements involving the two poles. Fourier polynomials are applied in the zonal direction for its periodicity, with only one element. Then, the partial differential equations are solved on the longitude-latitude meshes without coordinate transformation between spherical and Cartesian coordinates. For verification of the proposed method, a few Poisson equations and advective flows are tested. Firstly, the method is found to be valid for test cases with smooth solution. The results of the Poisson equations demonstrate that the present method exhibits high accuracy and exponential convergence. High-precision solutions are also obtained with near negligible numerical diffusion during the time evolution for advective flow with smooth shape. Secondly, the results of advective flow with non-smooth shape and deformational flow are also shown to be reasonable and effective. As a result, the present method is proved to be capable of solving flow through different types of elements, and thereby a desirable method with reliability and high accuracy for solving partial differential equations over a sphere.
Land Response to Atmosphere at Different Resolutions in the Common Land Model over East Asia
Daeun KIM, Yoon-Jin LIM, Minseok KANG, Minha CHOI
2016, 33(3): 391-408. doi: 10.1007/s00376-015-5059-x
Abstract:
Towards a better understanding of hydrological interactions between the land surface and atmosphere, land surface models are routinely used to simulate hydro-meteorological fluxes. However, there is a lack of observations available for model forcing, to estimate the hydro-meteorological fluxes in East Asia. In this study, Common Land Model (CLM) was used in offline-mode during the summer monsoon period of 2006 in East Asia, with different forcings from Asiaflux, Korea Land Data Assimilation System (KLDAS), and Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS), at point and regional scales, separately. The CLM results were compared with observations from Asiaflux sites. The estimated net radiation showed good agreement, with r=0.99 for the point scale and 0.85 for the regional scale. The estimated sensible and latent heat fluxes using Asiaflux and KLDAS data indicated reasonable agreement, with r=0.70. The estimated soil moisture and soil temperature showed similar patterns to observations, although the estimated water fluxes using KLDAS showed larger discrepancies than those of Asiaflux because of scale mismatch. The spatial distribution of hydro-meteorological fluxes according to KLDAS for East Asia were compared to the CLM results with GLDAS, and the GLDAS provided online. The spatial distributions of CLM with KLDAS were analogous to CLM with GLDAS, and the standalone GLDAS data. The results indicate that KLDAS is a good potential source of high spatial resolution forcing data. Therefore, the KLDAS is a promising alternative product, capable of compensating for the lack of observations and low resolution grid data for East Asia.