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2017 Vol. 34, No. 12

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Sensitivity of Potential Evapotranspiration Estimation to the Thornthwaite and Penman-Monteith Methods in the Study of Global Drylands
Qing YANG, Zhuguo MA, Ziyan ZHENG, Yawen DUAN
2017, 34(12): 1381-1394. doi: 10.1007/s00376-017-6313-1
Abstract:
Drylands are among those regions most sensitive to climate and environmental changes and human-induced perturbations. The most widely accepted definition of the term dryland is a ratio, called the Surface Wetness Index (SWI), of annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration (PET) being below 0.65. PET is commonly estimated using the Thornthwaite (PET_Th) and Penman-Monteith equations (PET_PM). The present study compared spatiotemporal characteristics of global drylands based on the SWI with PET_Th and PET_PM. Results showed vast differences between PET_Th and PET_PM; however, the SWI derived from the two kinds of PET showed broadly similar characteristics in the interdecadal variability of global and continental drylands, except in North America, with high correlation coefficients ranging from 0.58 to 0.89. It was found that, during 1901-2014, global hyper-arid and semi-arid regions expanded, arid and dry sub-humid regions contracted, and drylands underwent interdecadal fluctuation. This was because precipitation variations made major contributions, whereas PET changes contributed to a much lesser degree. However, distinct differences in the interdecadal variability of semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions were found. This indicated that the influence of PET changes was comparable to that of precipitation variations in the global dry-wet transition zone. Additionally, the contribution of PET changes to the variations in global and continental drylands gradually enhanced with global warming, and the Thornthwaite method was found to be increasingly less applicable under climate change.
Contrasting the Skills and Biases of Deterministic Predictions for the Two Types of El Niño
Fei ZHENG, Jin-Yi YU
2017, 34(12): 1395-1403. doi: 10.1007/s00376-017-6324-y
Abstract:
The tropical Pacific has begun to experience a new type of El Niño, which has occurred particularly frequently during the last decade, referred to as the central Pacific (CP) El Niño. Various coupled models with different degrees of complexity have been used to make real-time El Niño
predictions, but high uncertainty still exists in their forecasts. It remains unknown as to how much of this uncertainty is specifically related to the new CP-type El Niño and how much is common to both this type and the conventional Eastern Pacific (EP)-type El Niño. In this study, the deterministic performance of an El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) ensemble prediction system is examined for the two types of El Niño. Ensemble hindcasts are run for the nine EP El Niño events and twelve CP El Niño events that have occurred since 1950. The results show that (1) the skill scores for the EP events are significantly better than those for the CP events, at all lead times; (2) the systematic forecast biases come mostly from the prediction of the CP events; and (3) the systematic error is characterized by an overly warm eastern Pacific during the spring season, indicating a stronger spring prediction barrier for the CP El Niño. Further improvements to coupled atmosphere-ocean models in terms of CP El Niño prediction should be recognized as a key and high-priority task for the climate prediction community.
Effects of Wind Fences on the Wind Environment around Jang Bogo Antarctic Research Station
Jang-Woon WANG, Jae-Jin KIM, Wonsik CHOI, Da-Som MUN, Jung-Eun KANG, Hataek KWON, Jin-Soo KIM, Kyung-Soo HAN
2017, 34(12): 1404-1414. doi: 10.1007/s00376-017-6333-x
Abstract:
This study investigated the flow characteristics altered by Jang Bogo Antarctic Research Station using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling. The topography and buildings around Jang Bogo Station were constructed with computer-aided-design data in the CFD model domain. We simulated 16 cases with different inflow directions, and compared the flow characteristics with and without Jang Bogo Station for each inflow direction. The wind data recorded by the site's automatic weather station (AWS) were used for comparison. Wind rose analysis showed that the wind speed and direction after the construction of Jang Bogo Station were quite different from those before construction. We also investigated how virtual wind fences would modify the flow patterns, changing the distance of the fence from the station as well as the porosity of the fence. For westerly inflows, when the AWS was downwind of Jang Bogo Station, the decrease in wind speed was maximized (-81% for west-northwesterly). The wind speed reduction was also greater as the distance of the fence was closer to Jang Bogo Station. With the same distance, the fence with medium porosity (25%-33%) maximized the wind speed reduction. These results suggest that the location and material of the wind fence should be selected carefully, or AWS data should be interpreted cautiously, for particular prevailing wind directions.
Variation in Brewer-Dobson Circulation During Three Sudden Stratospheric Major Warming Events in the 2000s
Mengchu TAO, Yi LIU, Yuli ZHANG
2017, 34(12): 1415-1425. doi: 10.1007/s00376-017-6321-1
Abstract:
As the strongest subseasonal atmospheric variability during boreal winter, three remarkable sudden stratospheric major warming (SSW) events in the 2000s are investigated in terms of the Brewer-Dobson circulation (BDC) response. Our study shows that the changes of cross-isentropic velocity during the SSWs are not only confined to the polar region, but also extend to the whole Northern Hemisphere: enhanced descent in the polar region, as well as enhanced ascent in the tropics. When the acceleration of the deep branch of the BDC descends to the middle stratosphere, its strength rapidly decreases over a period of one to two weeks. The acceleration of the deep branch of the BDC is driven by the enhanced planetary wave activity in the mid-to-high-latitude stratosphere. Different from the rapid response of the deep branch of the BDC, tropical upwelling in the lower stratosphere accelerates up to 20%-40% compared with the climatology, 20-30 days after the onset of the SSWs, and the acceleration lasts for one to three months. The enhancement of tropical upwelling is associated with the large-scale wave-breaking in the subtropics interacting with the midlatitude and tropical Quasi-Biennial Oscillation-related mean flow.
The Tropical Pacific-Indian Ocean Associated Mode Simulated by LICOM2.0
Xin LI, Chongyin LI
2017, 34(12): 1426-1436. doi: 10.1007/s00376-017-6176-5
Abstract:
Oceanic general circulation models have become an important tool for the study of marine status and change. This paper reports a numerical simulation carried out using LICOM2.0 and the forcing field from CORE. When compared with SODA reanalysis data and ERSST.v3b data, the patterns and variability of the tropical Pacific-Indian Ocean associated mode (PIOAM) are reproduced very well in this experiment. This indicates that, when the tropical central-western Indian Ocean and central-eastern Pacific are abnormally warmer/colder, the tropical eastern Indian Ocean and western Pacific are correspondingly colder/warmer. This further confirms that the tropical PIOAM is an important mode that is not only significant in the SST anomaly field, but also more obviously in the subsurface ocean temperature anomaly field. The surface associated mode index (SAMI) and the thermocline (i.e., subsurface) associated mode index (TAMI) calculated using the model output data are both consistent with the values of these indices derived from observation and reanalysis data. However, the model SAMI and TAMI are more closely and synchronously related to each other.
Multiyear Observations of Deposition-Mode Ice Nucleating Particles at Two High-Altitude Stations in India
Sandeep D. WAGH, Baban NAGARE, Sanjay D. MORE, P. Pradeep KUMAR
2017, 34(12): 1437-1446. doi: 10.1007/s00376-017-7048-8
Abstract:
Ice nucleating particle (INP) measurements were made at two high-altitude stations in India. Aerosols collected on filter paper at Girawali Observatory, Inter University Center for Astronomy & Astrophysics (IGO), and at the Radio Astronomy Center, Ooty (RAC), were activated in deposition mode using a thermal gradient diffusion chamber to determine the INP concentrations. The measurement campaigns at IGO were conducted during 2011, 2013 and 2014, and at RAC during 2013 and 2014. When the aerosol samples were exposed to an ice supersaturation of between 5% and 23% in the temperature range -17.6°C to -22°C, the maximum INP number concentration at IGO and RAC was 1.0 L-1 and 1.6 L-1, respectively. A maximum correlation coefficient of 0.76 was observed between the INP number concentration and ice supersaturation. The airmass trajectories analyzed for the measurement campaigns showed that the Arabian Desert and arid regions were the main INP contributors. Elemental analysis of particles showed the presence of Na, Cl, Si, Al, Fe, Cu, Co, Cd, S, Mn and K, as well as some rare-Earth elements like Mo, Ru, La, Ce, V and Zr. When aerosols in the size range 0.5-20 μm were considered, the fraction that acted as INPs was 1:104 to 1:106 at IGO, and 1:103 to 1:104 at RAC. The higher ratio of INPs to aerosols at RAC than IGO may be attributable to the presence of rare-Earth elements observed in the aerosol samples at RAC, which were absent at IGO.
Understanding the Surface Temperature Cold Bias in CMIP5 AGCMs over the Tibetan Plateau
Xiaolei CHEN, Yimin LIU, Guoxiong WU
2017, 34(12): 1447-1460. doi: 10.1007s00376-017-6326-9
Abstract:
The temperature biases of 28 CMIP5 AGCMs are evaluated over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) for the period 1979-2005. The results demonstrate that the majority of CMIP5 models underestimate annual and seasonal mean surface 2-m air temperatures (T as) over the TP. In addition, the ensemble of the 28 AGCMs and half of the individual models underestimate annual mean skin temperatures (T s) over the TP. The cold biases are larger in T as than in T s, and are larger over the western TP. By decomposing the T s bias using the surface energy budget equation, we investigate the contributions to the cold surface temperature bias on the TP from various factors, including the surface albedo-induced bias, surface cloud radiative forcing, clear-sky shortwave radiation, clear-sky downward longwave radiation, surface sensible heat flux, latent heat flux, and heat storage. The results show a suite of physically interlinked processes contributing to the cold surface temperature bias. Strong negative surface albedo-induced bias associated with excessive snow cover and the surface heat fluxes are highly anti-correlated, and the cancelling out of these two terms leads to a relatively weak contribution to the cold bias. Smaller surface turbulent fluxes lead to colder lower-tropospheric temperature and lower water vapor content, which in turn cause negative clear-sky downward longwave radiation and cold bias. The results suggest that improvements in the parameterization of the area of snow cover, as well as the boundary layer, and hence surface turbulent fluxes, may help to reduce the cold bias over the TP in the models.
A High-Order Spatiotemporal Precision-Matching Taylor-Li Scheme for Time-Dependent Problems
Pengfei WANG
2017, 34(12): 1461-1471. doi: 10.1007/s00376-017-7018-1
Abstract:
Based on the Taylor series method and Li's spatial differential method, a high-order hybrid Taylor-Li scheme is proposed. The results of a linear advection equation indicate that, using the initial values of the square-wave type, a result with third-order accuracy occurs. However, using initial values associated with the Gaussian function type, a result with very high precision appears. The study demonstrates that, when the order of the time integral is more than three, the corresponding optimal spatial difference order could be higher than six. The results indicate that the reason for why there is no improvement related to an order of spatial difference above six is the use of a time integral scheme that is not high enough. The author also proposes a recursive differential method to improve the Taylor-Li scheme's computation speed. A more rapid and high-precision program than direct computation of the high-order space differential item is employed, and the computation speed is dramatically boosted. Based on a multiple-precision library, the ultrahigh-order Taylor-Li scheme can be used to solve the advection equation and Burgers' equation.
Microphysical Processes of a Stratiform Precipitation Event over Eastern China: Analysis Using Micro Rain Radar data
Hong WANG, Hengchi LEI, Jiefan YANG
2017, 34(12): 1472-1482. doi: 10.1007/s00376-017-7005-6
Abstract:
Data collected using the micro rain radar (MRR) situated in Jinan city, eastern China, were used to explore the altitudinal and temporal evolution of rainfall microphysical characteristics, and to analyze the bright band (BB) characteristics and hydrometeor classification. Specifically, a low-intensity and stable stratiform precipitation event that occurred from 0000 to 0550 UTC 15 February 2015 and featured a BB was studied. During this event, the rainfall intensity was less than 2 mm h-1 at a height of 300 m, which was above the radar site level, so the errors caused by the vertical air motion could be ignored. The freezing height from the radiosonde matched well with the top of the BB observed by the MRR. It was also found that the number of 0.5-1 mm diameter drops showed no noticeable variation below the BB. The maximum fall velocity and the maximum gradient fall velocity (GFV) of the raindrops appeared at the bottom of the BB. Meanwhile, a method that uses the GFV and reflectivity to identify the altitude and the thickness of the BB was established, with which the MRR can provide a reliable and real-time estimation of the 0°C isotherm. The droplet fall velocity was used to classify the types of snow crystals above the BB. In the first 20 min of the selected precipitation event, graupel prevailed above the BB; and at an altitude of 2000 m, graupel also dominated in the first 250 min. After 150 min, the existence of graupel and dendritic crystals with water droplets above the BB was inferred.