Spatial Observation of Red Sprites over a Winter Mesoscale Convective System in North America and the Analysis of Its Parent Thunderstorm
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摘要: 红色精灵是发生在雷暴云上空的一种大尺度瞬态放电发光现象，它们通常出现在地面上空40～90 km之间，是由地闪回击和随后可能存在的连续电流产生的。目前，由于综合同步观测资料较少，与夏季红色精灵相比，全世界对冬季红色精灵的研究屈指可数。2008年12月27～28日，受高空槽及低层暖湿气流的影响，北美阿肯色州地区爆发了一次冬季雷暴天气过程，搭载于FORMOSAT-2卫星上的ISUAL（Imager of Sprites and Upper Atmospheric Lightning）探测器有幸在这次雷暴上空记录到了两例红色精灵事件。本文利用ISUAL获取的红色精灵观测资料、多普勒天气雷达资料、美国国家闪电定位资料、超低频磁场数据、美国国家环境中心/气候预测中心提供的云顶亮温和探空数据等综合观测数据，对产生红色精灵的这次冬季雷暴特征和相关闪电活动规律进行了详细研究。结果表明，在两例红色精灵中，ISUAL均未观测到伴随的“光晕（halo）”现象，第一例为“圆柱状”红色精灵，第二例红色精灵由于发光较暗，无法判断其具体形态。产生红色精灵的母体雷暴是一次中尺度对流系统，该系统于27日15:00（协调世界时，下同）左右出现在阿肯色州北部附近，并自西向东移动。23:59系统发展到最强，最大雷达反射率因子（55～60 dBZ）的面积达到339 km2，之后开始减弱。03:03雷暴强度有所增加，随后云体便逐渐扩散，雷暴开始减弱，并在11:00完全消散。两例红色精灵发生分别在04:46:05和04:47:14，此时雷暴处于消散阶段，正负地闪频数均处于一个较低水平且正地闪比例显著增加，并且多位于云顶亮温−40°C～−50°C的层状云区上空。红色精灵的出现伴随着30～35 dBZ回波面积的增加。在红色精灵发生期间，雷达反射率大于40 dBZ的面积减少，10～40 dBZ的面积增加，表明红色精灵的产生与雷暴对流的减弱和层状云区的发展有关，这与已有的夏季红色精灵的研究结果类似。红色精灵的母体闪电为正地闪单回击，位于中尺度对流系统雷达反射率为25～35 dBZ的层状云降水区，对应的雷达回波顶高分别为2.5 km和5 km，峰值电流分别为+183 kA和+45 kA。根据超低频磁场数据估算两个母体闪电的脉冲电荷矩变化（iCMC）分别为+394 C km和+117 C km。超低频磁天线记录到了第一例红色精灵内部的电流信号，表明这例红色精灵放电很强。Abstract: Red sprites are large-scale transient luminous events (TLEs) that usually occur between about 40 and 90 km altitudes above thunderstorms, and they are caused by cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning strokes and subsequent continuous current. Compared with studies that focus on sprites that occur in summer, those focusing on winter sprites are fewer due to limited comprehensive synchronous observation data. Influenced by the upper trough and warm, moist airflow at low level, a thunderstorm occurred in Arkansas, North America, on December 27–28, 2008. The Imager for Sprites and Upper Atmospheric Lightning (ISUAL) aboard the FORMOSAT-2 satellite could record two red sprite events. Using the red sprites optical observation data obtained by ISUAL, Doppler weather radar data, National Lightning Location data, ultra-low frequency magnetic field data, and cloud-top brightness temperature data provided by the National Environmental Center/Climate Prediction Center of the United States and the sounding data, this paper presents a detailed study of the characteristics of the winter thunderstorm that produced the red sprites and the related lightning activity. The results show that ISUAL did not record the halo that accompanied the two red sprites. The first was a columnar sprite, and the specific morphology of the second could not be determined because of its dim light. The parent thunderstorm of the red sprites was a mesoscale convective system (MCS), which appeared around 1500 UTC on the 27th near northern Arkansas and moved from west to east. The thunderstorm became stronger at about 2359 UTC, and the area of maximum radar reflectivity (55–60 dBZ) reached 339 km2 and then began to weaken. At 0303 UTC, the thunderstorm intensity increased, then the cloud gradually spread, and the thunderstorm began to weaken and completely dissipated at 1100 UTC. The first recorded sprite occurred at 0446:05 UTC, and the second at 0447:17 UTC. They tended to be produced in the dissipation stage of the MCS, when the frequency of the positive and negative CG lightning was low and the Percentage Of Positive CG to total CG (POP) increased significantly, and they were mostly over the stratiform cloud area with a brightness temperature of −40°C–−50°C. The sprite production was accompanied by an increase in the echo area of 30–35 dBZ. The area of radar reflectivity larger than 40 dBZ decreased, and the area of 10–40 dBZ increased during the sprite time window, suggesting that the sprite production was the decay of the thunderstorm and that the area of the stratiform region developed, which is consistent with the results of previous studies on summer sprites. The parent CG flash of red sprites was positive and with a single return stroke, and it was located in the trailing stratiform region of the MCS, where the radar reflectivity ranged from 25 to 35 dBZ. The corresponding radar echo top heights were 2.5 km and 5 km, and the peak currents were +183 kA and +45 kA, respectively. Based on the ultra-low frequency magnetic field data, the impulse charge moment changes (iCMCs) of two parent lightning discharges were estimated to be +394 C km and +117 C km. The ultra-low frequency magnetic antenna recorded the internal current signal of the first red sprite, indicating that the red sprite was strongly discharged.
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图 1 2008年12月27日12:00（a）500 hPa位势高度场（黑色等值线，单位：dagpm）、风矢量（单位：m s−1）和温度（填色，单位： ℃）分布以及（b）800 hPa位势高度场（黑色等值线，单位：dagpm）、水汽通量（填色，单位：g cm−1 hPa−1 s−1）和风矢量（单位：m s−1）分布
Figure 1. Distributions of (a) 500-hPa geopotential height (black contours, units: dagpm), wind vectors (arrows, units: m s−1), and temperature (shaded, unit: ℃); and (b) 850-hPa geopotential height (black contours, units: dagpm), vapor flux (shaded, units: g cm−1 hPa−1 s−1), and wind vectors (arrows, units: m s−1) at 1200 UTC on December 27, 2008
图 2 2008年12月27日12:00小石城站（LZK）探空图。黑色表示状态曲线，绿色表示环境温度曲线（层结曲线），黄色表示环境露点温度曲线
Figure 2. Skew T–logp diagram for LZK at 1200 UTC on December 27, 2008. The black, green, and yellow solid lines represent parcel adiabatic lapse rate, temperature, and dew point, respectively
图 3 2008年12月28日（a‒f）00:00～05:00不同时刻云顶亮温与闪电（图中所示时刻前后15 min）的叠加（白色“×”表示负地闪，玫红色“＋”表示正地闪，红色大“×”表示红色精灵）
Figure 3. Cloud-top brightness temperature from (a‒f) 0000 UTC to 0500 UTC on December 28, 2008, with flashes within 15 min centered at the time shown in the figure (the white “×,” rose red “＋” and red plus “×” denote −CG flash, +CG flashes, and red sprites, respectively).
图 4 2008年12月母体雷暴不同云顶亮温面积的演变
Figure 4. Evolution of cloud-top brightness temperature area of different temperature intervals on December, 2008
图 5 2008年12月红色精灵母体雷暴在不同时间的组合反射率演变：27日（a）23:04、（b）23:59、28日（c）01:03、（d）02:03、（e）03:03、（f）04:03、（g）05:02、（h）06:02
Figure 5. Evolution of composite radar reflectivity of the sprite-producing thunderstorm at (a) 2304 UTC, (b) 2359 UTC December 27, (c) 0103 UTC, (d) 0203 UTC, (e) 0303 UTC, (f) 0403 UTC, (g) 0502 UTC, (h) 0602 UTC December 28, 2008
图 6 2008年12月红色精灵母体雷暴的不同雷达反射率面积演变（图中虚线为红色精灵发生时间）
Figure 6. Areal evolution of different radar reflectivities during the sprite-producing thunderstorm on December, 2008 (the dotted line in the picture shows the occurrence time of the red sprites).
图 7 （a）2008年12月28日04:45雷达组合反射率图与该时刻前后15 min内地闪的叠加（黑色大“＋”表示母体闪电，蓝色大“＋”表示红色精灵，黑色“×”表示正地闪，红色“×”表示负地闪，CG1和CG2分别表示两个母体闪电，SP1和SP2分别表示两个红色精灵）。（b）和（c）分别为沿（a）中AB线（穿过母体闪电）和CD线所做的垂直剖面
Figure 7. (a) Overlap of composite radar reflectivity at 0445 UTC December 28, 2008 with CG flashes within 15 min centered at the time shown on the figure (the black plus “＋”, blue plus “＋”, black “×”, and red “×” represent the parent strokes, sprites, +CG, and −CG flashes, respectively; CG1 and CG2 represent parent strokes; and SP1 and SP2 represent red sprites). (b) and (c) show the vertical cross section along line AB (passing through the parent strokes) and line CD, respectively
图 8 2008年12月28日ISUAL探测器捕捉到的（a、b）两例红色精灵事件和（c、d）由Duke Forest记录到的相关超低频ULF磁场信号
Figure 8. (a, b) Two red sprites observed by ISUAL (Imager of Sprites and Upper Atmospheric Lightning) on December 28, 2008, and (c, d) the associated ULF (Ultra Low Frequency) signals in Duke Forest
图 9 2008年12月（a）母体雷暴中每6 min地闪频数、（b）红色精灵发生前后约两小时内每6 min地闪频数和（c）地闪峰值电流随时间的演变。（a）和（b）中的黑色虚线表示红色精灵发生的时间，（c）中蓝色“＋”为红色精灵的母体闪电，峰值电流分别为+183 kA和+45 kA
Figure 9. (a) Evolution of CG flashes per six minutes in the parent thunderstorm; (b) CG flashes per six minutes about two hours before and after the sprite; and (c) peak current of CG flashes in the parent thunderstorm on December, 2008. The black dotted line in (a) and (b) represents the sprite occurrence time, and the blue “＋” in (c) represents the parent flashes of the red sprites and the peak currents are +183 kA and +45 kA, respectively
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