Strong Wind Characteristics of the Lower Boundary Layer (0–300 m) during the Landfall of a Typhoon
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摘要: 利用台风山竹（1822）和利奇马（1909）登陆期间固定式风廓线雷达、WindCubeV2激光雷达和测风塔的梯度观测数据，结合台风山竹（1822）登陆前后精细化风场模拟资料，分析了登陆台风不同影响象限内，离地300 m高度内的强风参数及其随距离、海拔高度及下垫面的变化特征。结果表明：（1）距离台风中心200 km水平范围内，最大风速所在高度及风切变指数沿台风半径向外增加，且陆地强风切变指数普遍高于0.12，而海洋下垫面拖曳作用弱，风切变较小，仅在岛屿群附近存在超出国标设计阈值的高切变区域。（2）台风移动方向的右前象限内强风切变指数稳定维持在0.17左右，且对海拔高度不敏感，左后象限存在类似于急流的风廓线，而左前象限内强风的垂直变化在空间上具有较强的非线性特征，边界层低层强风结构较复杂。（3）阵风因子和湍流强度随平均风速增大、离地高度升高呈现减小趋势。（4）过程最大风向变差角沿台风半径向外减小，且在空间上具有显著的非对称性，其中右后象限的风向变差角最大，半小时风向变化超过30°，且大多发生在台风登陆前或登陆时。研究成果可为我国近海及沿海风电场的微尺度风场模拟及台风风险防御提供帮助。Abstract: Based on in situ gradient observations from wind profiler radars, WindCubeV2 lidar, and masts during the landfall of typhoons Mangkhut (1822) and Lekima (1909), combined with the simulated winds of typhoon Mangkhut (1822) with the finest horizontal resolution of 2 km and vertical resolution of 50 model levels in which the lower levels are densified, the strong wind structure in the lower level (below 300 m height over sea level or terrain) were analyzed, and the following results were obtained. (1) Within the range of 0–200 km from the typhoon center, the maximum wind speed height and wind shear index increased outward along the radial direction, and the wind shear index on the underlying land surface was generally higher than 0.12. Because of the weak drag effect on the underlying ocean surface, the wind shear index was generally small, except for island areas. (2) The strong wind shear on the right front quadrant of the moving direction of the typhoon remained stable at approximately 0.17, which was insensitive to distance and altitude. The wind profile was similar to the jet stream on the left rear quadrant, and a previous study pointed out that the changes of supergradient/subgradient wind in the vertical direction were responsible for the jet-type profiles. The vertical variations of strong winds on the left front quadrant showed nonlinear characteristics, indicating the complex, strong wind structure over this area. (3) The gust factor and turbulence intensity decreased with the mean wind speed and altitude. (4) The maximum wind direction variation during the landfall of a typhoon decreased outward along the radial direction and exhibited statistically significant spatial asymmetry, with the largest variation near the right rear quadrant. Over some areas of the right rear quadrant, the wind direction changed more than 30° in half an hour, and most of them occurred before or during the typhoon’s landfall. This information could be useful for microscale wind simulation as well as the prevention and mitigation of typhoon disasters over offshore wind farms in China.
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图 1 （a）2018年9月台风山竹（1822）、（b）2019年8月台风利奇马（1909）的移动路径（黑色实线）以及固定式风廓线雷达（蓝色三角）位置。图b中绿色星、黑色十字和紫色方块分别代表测风塔、WindCubeV2激光雷达和温岭东海塘风电场位置
Figure 1. Tracks (black line) of typhoon (a) Mangkhut (1822) in September 2018 and (b) typhoon Lekima (1909) in August 2019 and locations (blue triangles) of the wind profiler radars. In Fig. b, the green stars, black cross, and purple block denote the locations of masts, WindCubeV2 lidar, and Donghaitang wind farm, respectively
图 2 台风移动路径象限客观分析法，四角星为探测点所在位置（xs, ys），右下圆点为当前时刻台风所在位置（x0, y0），左上圆点为下一时刻台风所在位置（x1, y1）。θ为（x0, y0）和（x1, y1）连线与（x0, y0）和（xs, ys）连线的顺时针夹角，θ1为正北方向与（x0, y0）和（x1, y1）连线的顺时针夹角，θS为正北方向与（x0, y0）和（xs, ys）连线的顺时针夹角
Figure 2. Quadrant analysis benchmarked on the track of the typhoon. The blue star, the blue dots in the lower right and upper left denote the observation point (xs, ys), the current position of the typhoon (x0, y0), and the position of the typhoon in the next moment (x1, y1), respectively. θ denotes the clockwise angle between the line from (x0, y0) to (x1, y1) and the line from (x0, y0) to (xs, ys). θ1 denotes the clockwise angle between the north line and the line from (x0, y0) to (x1, y1). θS denotes the clockwise angle between the north line and the line from (x0, y0) to (xs, ys)
图 3 2019年台风利奇马（1909）影响期间东海塘风电场风机观测的风速（曲线）、风向（散点）
Figure 3. Wind speed (curved lines) and wind direction (dots) observed from the wind turbines in Donghaitang wind farm during Typhoon Lekima (1909) in 2019
图 4 2018年台风山竹（1822）登陆前后（a）海陵岛、（b）珠海风廓线雷达探测离地700 m高度内的风廓线
Figure 4. Observed wind profiles in the lower level (below 700 m over terrain) from radars located in (a) Hailingdao and (b) Zhuhai during typhoon Mangkhut (1822) in 2018
图 5 2019年台风利奇马（1909）登陆（a）前、（b）中、（c）后浙江省平阳县WindCubeV2激光雷达观测的离地300 m高度内的风廓线
Figure 5. Observed wind profiles in the lower level (below 300 m over terrain) from WindCubeV2 lidar located in Pingyang County of Zhejiang Province (a) before, (b) during, and (c) after the landfall of typhoon Lekima (1909) in 2019
图 6 2019年台风利奇马（1909）登陆前后1663#、6602#测风塔观测的10 m高度风速
Figure 6. Wind speeds at 10-m height observed from 1663#, 6602# masts during the landfall of typhoon Lekima (1909) in 2019
图 7 2019年台风利奇马（1909）登陆前后测风塔10 m高度的强风（≥17.2 m s−1）样本对应的（a）阵风因子、（b）湍流强度的垂直变化。实线为平均值，虚线为95%置信水平线
Figure 7. Observed (a) gust factor and (b) turbulence intensity profiles of strong winds (≥17.2 m s−1) at 10-m height from two masts during the landfall of typhoon Lekima (1909) in 2019. The solid and dashed lines denote the mean value and 95% confidence level, respectively
图 8 2019年台风利奇马（1909）登陆前后1663#测风塔观测的10 m高度处强风（a）阵风因子、（b）湍流强度随风速的变化，减小趋势均超过95%置信水平的显著性检验
Figure 8. Variations of (a) gust factor and (b) turbulence intensity of strong winds (≥17.2 m s−1) at 10-m height with wind speed observed at 1663# mast during the landfall of typhoon Lekima (1909) in 2019. The decreasing trends are significant at the 95% confidence level
图 9 模拟的、观测的2018年台风山竹（1822）的（a）移动路径，（b）台风中心最大风速和最低气压。图b黑色柱子为台风登陆点，观测资料来源于中国气象局热带气旋最佳路径数据集
Figure 9. Simulated and observed (a) typhoon tracks and (b) maximum wind speeds and minimum air pressures at the center of typhoon Mangkhut (1822) in 2018. In Fig. b, the black bar denotes the landing point. The observation data are obtained from the China Meteorological Administration tropical cyclone database
图 10 模拟的、风廓线雷达探测的2018年台风山竹（1822）影响期间离地300 m高度内（a）海陵岛和（b）珠海的u/u100廓线。u、u100分别表示各高度层的平均风速、100 m高度处的平均风速
Figure 10. Simulated and observed wind profiles in the lower level (below 300 m over terrain) in (a) Hailingdao and (b) Zhuhai during typhoon Mangkhut (1822) in 2018. u, u100 represent mean wind speed at different height level, mean wind speed at 100-m height, respectively
图 11 2018年台风山竹（1822）（a）登陆前（9月16日15时）、（b）登陆时（9月16日17时）和（c）登陆后（9月16日19:30）低于500 m的最大风速所在高度。最大风速是指格点位置处各高度层水平风速的最大值
Figure 11. The heights (lower than 500 m) of maximum wind speed (a) before (1500 BJT 16 September), (b) during (1700 BJT 16 September), and (c) after (1930 BJT 16 September) the landfall of typhoon Mangkhut (1822) in 2018. The maximum wind speed denotes the maximum value of the horizontal wind speeds in the different heights
图 12 2018年台风山竹（1822）登陆时区域平均的典型风廓线。蓝色线、绿色线和橘色线分别代表图11b中蓝色、绿色和橘色区域内平均风廓线。实线为平均值，虚线为95%置信水平线
Figure 12. Typical wind profiles of winds averaged over the blue, green, and orange areas in Fig. 11b during the landfall of typhoon Mangkhut (1822) in 2018. The solid and dashed lines denote the mean value and 95% confidence level, respectively
图 13 2018年台风山竹（1822）登陆时T-RAPS模式第3层嵌套网格区域内（a）离地300 m高度内的风切变指数和（b）10 m高度瞬时风速。白色圆点代表台风中心位置，图b中白色十字代表风切变指数大于0.21的区域
Figure 13. Simulated (a) wind shear index in the lower level (below 300 m over terrain) and (b) 10-m wind speed over domain 3 of the T-RAPS model during the landfall of typhoon Mangkhut (1822) in 2018. The white dot denotes the center of the typhoon. In Fig. b, the white crosses denote the area with a wind shear index greater than 0.21
图 14 2018年台风山竹（1822）登陆时不同象限离地300 m高度内的强风（表3中强风阈值）风切变指数与（a）格点距台风中心的距离、（b）格点海拔高度的关系
Figure 14. Relationships of the four-quadrant strong wind (strong wind thresholds in Table 3) shear index in the lower layer (below 300 m over terrain) with (a) the distances from the grid points to the center of the typhoon and (b) the altitudes of the grid points during the landfall of typhoon Mangkhut (1822) in 2018
图 15 2018年台风山竹（1822）影响期间T-RAPS模式第3层嵌套网格区域内（a）半小时最大风向变差角及其（b）发生时间的空间分布，白色圆点代表台风中心位置
Figure 15. (a) Maximum wind direction variation in half an hour and (b) their occurrence time over domain 3 of the T-RAPS model during typhoon Mangkhut (1822) in 2018. The white dot denotes the center of the typhoon
表 1 2018年台风山竹（1822）影响期间T-RAPS模式的数值模拟试验设计
Table 1. Numerical simulation settings used in T-RAPS model during Typhoon Mangkhut (1822) in 2018
数值模式主要设置项 参数设置 初猜场和侧边界 FNL再分析资料 起报时间 2018年9月16日02:00（北京时） 积分时长 72 h 分辨率/km 18 6 2 格点范围 311×251 271×271 211×211 移动嵌套 否 是 是 移动嵌套网格中心 BABJ台风业务实况定位资料 垂直分辨率 50 模式层顶/hPa 10 积分步长/s 60 20 6 积云动力参数化方案 KF (new Eta) 不使用 不使用 云微物理参数化方案 WSM6 边界层参数化方案 YSU 表层方案 Revised MM5 M-O 辐射参数化方案 RRTMG/RRTMG 陆面过程参数化方案 Unified Noah land-surface 
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表 2 2019年8月台风利奇马（1909）登陆前后测风塔与台风中心的距离、移动方向的夹角
Table 2. Distances and angles between the two masts and typhoon center, moving direction during Lekima (1909) in August 2019
10日00时 10日01时 10日02时 10日03时 测风塔 与台风中心
的距离/km与台风移动
方向的夹角与台风中心
的距离/km与台风移动
方向的夹角与台风中心
的距离/km与台风移动
方向的夹角与台风中心
的距离/km与台风移动
方向的夹角6602# 117 0° 87 0° 73 18° 52 8° 1663# 119 21° 92 28° 79 52° 67 51°
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表 3 2018年台风山竹（1822）影响期间不同象限的强风样本分类表
Table 3. Classification criteria of strong winds over four different quadrants during typhoon Mangkhut (1822) in 2018
格点位置与台风移动
方向的夹角/（°）10 m高度
风速/m s−1下垫面覆盖类型 右前陆地强风 20～80 ≥28.4 陆地 右后陆地强风 140～150 ≥28.4 陆地 左后海洋强风 220～230 ≥34.4 海洋 左前陆地强风 300～330 ≥28.4 陆地
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